art iculations 29th Annual Conference of the Association oi Art Historians 10-13 April 2003 University of London Jointly hosted by Supported by 3| Birkbeck MlP^ UNIVERSITY OF LONDON art iculations art iculations 29th Annual Conference of the Association of Art Historians 10-1 3 April 2003 University of London Association <>f An Historian* 3rticulations marks the first conference to be held in London since \ 1997. For Birkbeck and UCL, joint hosts of the Conference, it also marks the thirtieth anniversary of the decision taken an extraordinary meeting in 1973 to initiate the Association of Art Historians, with its own journal and conference. It is therefore very timely that these two institutions should be hosting the event 30 years on. The 29 sessions which make up the academic programme of the Conference address the theme of 3rticulations from a diverse range of historical periods, media and theoretical frameworks. We hope that this range will facilitate a re-evaluation of the expansion and diversification of the discipline which has emerged over the past three decades. There are two plenary events, one at the opening and one at the close of the Conference. The opening plenary The Cinematic City, chaired by Prof. Ian Christie and Prof. Laura Mulvey, features Prof. Lynda Nead on 'Animating the Everyday: London on Film c. 1900', and lain Sinclair in conversation with Chris Petit about their film, 'London Orbital'. The closing plenary at midday on Sunday will focus on Flaxman in the light of the opening of the exhibition at UCL's Strang Print Room and will include Prof. David Bindman, Prof. / William Vaughan and Dr. Emma Chambers (Curator of the exhibition and of the Strang). Throughout the morning there will be a special preview of the UCL Flaxmans exclusively for the Conference delegates. The Conference social programme includes receptions at the UCL Cloisters (Thursday 10th April), the National Gallery (Friday 11th April) and the Courtauld Institute Gallery (Saturday 12th April). Delegates are encouraged to book timed slots to visit the Titian exhibition at the National Gallery on the evening of Friday's reception. There is a reduced entrance fee for AAH members. We hope you enjoy all aspects of Sfticulations >. X^ M x and look forward to seeing you at the Conference. Tag Gronberg Birkbeck College, Academic Convener Helen Weston University College London, Academic Convener Daphne Saghbini \ Conference Administrator contents Page General Conference Information 8 Special Interest Group Meetings 9 AGM 9 Forums 9 Academic Sessions: 1: Determining the Viewer of Medieval and Renaissance Art 10 2: Articulated Body: Visual and Theoretical Approaches to Anthropomorphism 13 3: The Topography of Slavery: Re-Membering Metropolitan Space 15 4: Photography: History, Theory, Practice 17 5: Articulating an Alternative Modern Architecture 19 6: Articulating Meanings in Late Medieval and Early Modern Interiors 23 7: Dislocution': Expressing Displacement in Visual Culture 26 8: Histories of the Eye 28 9: Medium Matters Today 31 10: Visual Cultures of Landscape 33 11: Has the Bubble Burst? 36 12: The Ends of Photography 38 13: The Prevalence of Print Culture: Communication Art in the Nineteenth Century 40 14: Hierarchy in Late Medieval and Renaissance Art 42 15: Performing Objects/Animating Images 46 6 Page 16: Articulations: Art History and Archaeology in Asia and Africa 49 17: Articulating Value: Object, Market, Museum 51 18: Articulating the New: Art Museums, New Technologies and New Media 53 19: An Ocean of Exchange: Colonialism, Trade and Architecture in the Indian Ocean Basin 1800-1930 55 20: Race and the Enlightenment 56 21: The Visual Narrative 58 22: Historicizing Digital Art 60 23: Just What is it that Makes Today's Surrealism so Different, so Appealing? 64 24: Visual Intelligence 67 25: Articulations in Blue 69 26: Articulating the Antique 71 27: War, Community and Visual Culture 74 28: Transformations: the Aesthetics of Replication 1800-1900 76 29: Disappearance 78 Index of Speakers and Convenors 81 THE TIMETABLE AND LOCATION OF SESSIONS IS ON A SEPARATE SHEET IN YOUR DELEGATE PACK 7 The conference Registration Desk is located in the North Cloisters at UCL. It will be open on: Thursday 3-5pm Friday 9am-7pm Saturday 9 am- 6pm Sunday 9am- 1pm All delegates must register and receive their badge. For reasons of security, conference badges should be worn at all times. Cloakroom A cloakroom in the Cloisters will be available for delegates to leave their luggage in during the day. This, however, will be at the owner's risk as the AAH and UCL cannot take responsibility for any articles left. Complimentary teas, coffees and packed lunches will be served in the North and South Cloisters at the times indicated in the programme. Drinks, snacks and light meals can also be purchased from The Lower Refectory at UCL. It wil l be open on Thursday and Friday but not on the weekend. There are numerous cafes in the area. Waterstones at 82 Gower Street has a coffee shop in the basement, serving drinks, sandwiches and snacks. The Book Fair is located in the North and South Cloisters. Opening hours are: Thursday 3-5pm and 6.30-8.30pm Friday 9.30-5pm Saturday 9.30-5pm Sunday 9.30-lpm Student assistants will be working at the conference. They will be at hand to help with you with directions and other queries. They will be wearing distinctive black tee shirts bearing the ARTiculations logo. It will be possible to join the Association of Art Historians at the Registration Desk. If you would like more information, please contact: The Administrator Association of Art Historians 70 Cowcross Street London EC1M 6EJ Telephone: 020 7490 3211 E mail: admin@aah.org.uk Thursday: 5.00-6.30pm Opening plenary in the Bloomsbury Theatre "The Cinematic City" Chairs: Professor Ian Christie and Professor Laura Mulvey Speakers: Professor Lynda Nead Animating the Everyday: London on Film c.1900 Iain Sinclair and Chris Petit in conversation about their film London Orbital 7.00-8.30pm Reception in the North and South Cloisters, sponsored by Laurence King Publishing. During the reception the John Fleming Travel Award will be presented by Hugh Honour. Friday: 6.30-8.30pm Reception at the National Gallery, sponsored by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Numbers are limited for this event and for reasons of security, YOU MUST SIGN UP FOR THIS RECEPTION AT THE REGISTRATION DESK IF YOU WISH TO ATTEND. Your name will be added to the list and you will be given a numbered ticket which you will need to gain admission to the Reception. Saturday: 6.30-8.30pm Reception at the Courtauld Institute Galleries, hosted by Professor James Cuno, Director of the Courtauld Institute of Art. Sunday: 9.30am-l 2 noon Special opening of the Flaxman Exhibition in the Flaxman Gallery and the Strang Print Room, UCL 1 2-1 pm Closing plenary in the Cruciform Building Lecture Theatre 1. "On the Trail of Flaxman" Chair: Emma Chambers (University College London) Eckart Marchand (UCL) - The History of the Flaxman Gallery at UCL Martin Holden (Holden Conservation Ltd.) - Conservation of Sculptors' models: The Flaxman Gallery at UCL David Bindman (UCL) - Flaxman as a Sculptor William Vaughan (Birkbeck College) - Flaxman's 'Outlines' and their European Reputation Discussion For further information on membership, subcommittees and forthcoming conferences please visit www.aah.org.uk REST GROUP MEETINGS These meetings of AAH sub-committees will take place between 12.40-2.00pm on Friday 11 th April. Art Galleries and Museums Room: Cruciform Building, Lecture Theatre 2 This meeting is intended to enable Museums and Galleries' members to meet and discuss the structure, objectives and future needs of the group. Nominations and proposals for a new subcommittee Chair will also be discussed. Independents On FRIDAY 1 1 APRIL, after the reception at the National Gallery, the Independents will meet for an informal supper at a venue to be notified at the conference. Schools Room: Cruciform Building, Lecture Theatre 1 This meeting is intended to enable schools' members to get acquainted, discuss the objectives and future needs of the group and to consider strategies for widening participation. Schools' members are encouraged to attend the University and Colleges forum on 'Teaching and Learning' at 4.15-5.30pm on Saturday 12th April in the Pearson Lecture Theatre Students Room: Pearson Lecture Theatre The Student subcommittee invites you to attend a 'Careers Forum' in which a round table discussion addresses ways of broadening your career opportunities. This meeting will provide a convivial setting in which you can listen to and discuss issues affecting existing and future career opportunities for students studying or involved with Art History. Please feel free to AGM come along and sit in. Don't forget that the first of the New Voices student conferences will be taking place on Saturday 24th May. Please ask a member of the subcommittee for details or visit the information table at the conference. Universities and Colleges Room: Chadwick Lecture Theatre Topics for discussion will be: - Continuing effects of RAE - Future development of the subcommittee - How to communicate with wider membership - Possible bids for funding from AAH initiatives Fund. The AGM will be held 4.30-6pm on Friday 11th April. Room: Cruciform Building, Lecture Theatre 1 There wil l be a vote on the revised constitution at the AGM this year and it is vital that the meeting be quorate. The Executive Committee are asking all Members of the AAH to make a special effort to attend. FORUMS There will be 75-minute forum discussions between 4.15-5.30pm on Saturday 12th April on the following topics: Freelancing - Pleasures and Perils Room: Chadwick Lecture Theatre This will be a discussion on the opportunities and disadvantages of working as freelance art historians. The forum, to be chaired by Marion Arnold, will be generated by shon presentations from several Independent .Art Historians. All those who attend will be invited to explore and share experiences of finding work, generating income, coping with taxation within self-employment, doing research and evaluating the pleasures and perils of freelancing. We hope to reach some conclusions about how we contribute to the discipline of art history and how we are perceived by other practitioners. Teaching and Learning Room: Pearson Lecture Theatre This forum will discuss how the provisions of the Special Educational Needs & Disabilities Act 2001 (SENDA) might affect our learning and teaching practices, including the ways in which we implement the Benchmark Statement for History of Art Architecture and Design. Student's forum: Informal Gathering As we approach the end of the second full day of the conference, this is an opportunity for student members to relax and chat in an informal atmosphere. No notes, no presentations, no pressure. Meet at the student information table (near registration) Session 1: Determining the Viewer of Medieval and Renaissance Art Robert Maniura & Laura Jacobus Birkbeck College, School of History of Art, Film and Visual Media To what extent were the responses of medieval and renaissance viewers of art determined by the creators of the work, and to what extent did viewers remain determinedly autonomous? Were strategies adopted to ensure the 'safe' reception of an intended meaning, or to manipulate the viewers' experience? And what circumstances and attitudes contributed to viewers* reception of the work; their evasion, acceptance or reinterpretation of their given role as audience? This session explores both the ways in which medieval and renaissance works of art invite or attempt to enforce a privileged reading, and the ways in which viewers could either invest in these readings or, wilfully or accidentally, create new readings of their own. Examples of controlling strategies include the selection and composition of a work's content; glosses in other media such as text or associated performance; the siting of a work; the placement, selection or segregation of viewers; limitations on viewers' physical movement and patterns of access; the controlled revelation or concealment of the work of art. Examples of viewers' autonomous or conditioned responses to works of art might be found in their own accounts of works of art; accounts of their responses; individual cases or larger patterns of appropriation through copying, purchasing, embellishing or re-installing works. We will consider the potential for interaction between a work and its environment leading to viewer experiences which may be unanticipated and beyond determination by any interested party. Shirley Ann Brown York University, Toronto The Bayeux Tapestry and its Audience: Privileged Reading or Subversion? This paper will look at how the designer of the Bayeux Tapestry utilised controlling strategies to shape and determine the response of the late eleventh-century viewer to the visual narrative presented. Since the immediate outcome of the imaged story was known to all, it was imperative for the Norman patron that this work present a reading which privileged his legitimate claim to dominance. On the other hand, modern scholarship has suggested that the designer of the Tapestry was English and that the defeated Anglo-Saxon could also discern a more sympathetic message built into the images presented, a message revealing the Norman victory as unjust. The question is whether or not this suggested dual response to the same images by different segments of the audience was deliberately provoked. The possibility that the privileged pro-Norman reading was accompanied by subtle, subversive visual glosses found in the border figures and perhaps in the design elements themselves will be looked at from the viewpoints of medieval aesthetics and today's literary and reception theories. The paper will look at existing arguments and attempt to decide what alternatives can be supported by the historical and artistic evidence. Mickey Abel University of Texas at Austin Subjective Control: Closing the Visual Rhetoric of the Archivolted Portal Grammatical structures, following a syntactical model allow the "Grand Tympanum" portals of the eleventh century, with Christ as their "subject", to be read as narrative. This model is not productive when applied to the contemporary, Aquitainian churches that feature a portal program comprised of radially arranged voussoirs, inwardly-stepped archivolts, and a tympanum-free portal opening. Without the benefit of the tympanum's dominating subject, these portals are said to be unreadable. Looking instead to a poetic model, the repetitive, rhythmic imagery can be shown to be comprised of rhetorical figures and ornamented colors, which are connected metonymically and are meant to trigger an emotionally affective response. Read in terms of both spatial and temporal relations, the compositions were intentionally designed to rely on the viewer's mnemonic and imaginative faculties for coherence and thus were subject to alternative interpretations, which were difficult to control. Historically coinciding with the Peace of God movement with its inclusive basis that sought to bring together various factions by-giving each a voice and mediating the differences, the archivolted portal functioned as the backdrop and stage for the ritual procession associated with the Peace. It served to record the individual's affective response and facilitate the imaginatively personalized re-enactment of the event. Jill Burke University of Edinburgh Meaning and Crisis in High Renaissance Italy In May 1509 the Florentine chronicler, Piero Parenti, misinterpreted a work by Leonardo da Vinci. He described a festive contraption of a lion that eviscerated itself to reveal guts full of lilies. This demonstrated, Parenti claimed, that the Florentines always have the French fleur-de-lys in their hearts. Actually, as Parenti well knew, the French king had just conquered the Venetian Republic, generally symbolised by the lion of St Mark, and Leonardo's invention was celebrating that victory. How Parenti came to mate such a skewed interpretation is now unknowable, but the fact that he could do it is indicative of the slipperiness of fixing meaning to an increasingly complex allegorical vocabulary employed in visual imagery during the early sixteenth century, and the power of the spectator to interpret this imagery for his or her own purposes. It seems that a sense of uneasiness about the misunderstanding of the visual world ­from deportment to dress to fresco cycle ­permeated early modem Italian mentality. Considering how we can apply the evidence of misunderstandings of festive ephemera to more traditional areas of art historical enquiry, this paper will argue that we can only understand the visual products of this period by appreciating that contemporaries were as keenly aware of the problems and potentials of misinterpretation as the modern art historian. Session 1: Determining the Viewer of Medieval and Renaissance Art Dorigen Caldwell Birkbeck College Mistaking the Pope for a Pig and Other Tales Many commentators in sixteenth-century Italy stressed the importance of the impresa as a public statement of identity and intent - and yet to what extent could the viewer's reading be guaranteed? In his seminal Dialogo delle imprese (1551), Paolo Giovio described how Clement VII 's personal symbolic device had been illustrated in rooms at the Vatican in such a way as to appear to brand the pontiff a pig. Giovio cites this and other examples in order to warn of the dangers of leaving the bearer of an impresa open to ridicule — either because of the nature of the illustration, or because of the ambiguous meaning of the device itself. Given the degree of difficulty that often pertained to recognising literary references, and to deciphering the word- image combination, the audience for imprese might be thought of as self-defining - but even if an 'ideal' viewer actually existed, these devices were displayed in a variety of (often very public) contexts, in which the relationship between intended and ascribed meaning was far from obvious. Indeed, this paper will argue that a fluidity of meaning was actually intrinsic to the form itself, and to the experience of viewing. Michael Grillo University of Maine The Ineffable Expectations of Trecento Audiences This paper examines Trecento paintings to understand how audiences sought standardized cues to reading strategies through compositional syntax providing framing contexts for a denotative iconography. Depictions of Joseph in Incarnation images show a marked shift in his presentation through changes of his location and engagement with other characters. Dugento compositions placed Joseph so consistently in the lower left corner that audiences would anticipate his presence there, and so come to associate this corner with his doubts of the legitimacy of Christ. An Incarnation panel attributed to Giotto pivotally marks a shift in attitudes towards Joseph, by depicting him rising from this corner, suggesting a narrative continuity from his sleeping anxiously in disbelief to awakening from the dream revealing Christ's divinity. This conversion of Joseph became increasingly important in the Post-Plague era, with its paternity concerns, as ensuing images show, including one by Bartolo di Fredi, which underscores how cleverly images could communicate. It places a horse's posterior in the corner long associated with Joseph, in a bawdy, but poignant commentary on resistance to belief not possible through verbal language. Eckart Marchand University College London Sophisticated Gestures and Inscribed Viewers: The Characterization of Saints and Famous Men in Quattrocento Paintings Contrary to some scholarly opinion the meaning of gestures is not universally accessible but conventional; this is especially the case for gestures in Italian quattrocento paintings on which this paper will focus. Though some gestures had meanings that can, in part, be determined in isolation from their context (physical, narrative, etc.) in the main, the meanings of gestures depend on these contexts. This paper will argue that artists made conscious use of the opportunities offered by the nature of their audiences, which were often restricted and knowledgeable, and the controlled conditions of their viewing. Taking case studies of saints in altarpieces and figures of Famous Men the paper will argue that painters exploited the semantic openness of gestures to characterize figures in a way that frequendy would have been accessible only to such restricted audiences who were familiar with the discourses alluded to (e.g. lives of saints). Where paintings were more widely accessible this could privilege certain viewers, while leaving some meanings inaccessible for others. The paper will discuss a source that acknowledges the possibility of 'unintended' interpretations and the case of a misidentificanon of a figure which can be ascribed to the painter's sophisticated employment of gesture. Such sources are rare and the argument will be largely based on the evidence of the images and their historical context. Lynn Ransom Walters Art Museum, Baltimore Conforming to Christ: Viewer Response in the Verger de Soulas (Paris, BNF fr. 9220) The thirteenth century witnessed a rise in the level of participation of the lay community in religious life. One consequence of this was the large number of illuminated devotional manuscripts produced for lay audiences. The visual programs of these manuscripts reflect the renewed vigor in late medieval spirituality inspired in large part by the mendicants. This paper examines one such manuscript in terms of how its viewer's response was conditioned by the designer to effect a state of compassion and conformity with the suffered Christ. The manuscript, a late thirteenth-century picture book known as the Verger de soulas, comprises a highly-developed program of devotion and penance that recalls the major currents in Franciscan penitential practice. Like much Franciscan devotional literature, the Verger de soulas depends heavily on imagery to provide the means by which one can virtually participate in the events of Christ's life and suffering, thereby attaining true conformity with Christ. The doctrine of compassio is a key element in Franciscan penitential theology. These concepts are developed in the Verger de soulas. The issue of the viewer's response is central to this examination of the manuscript. It is the same response desired by the Franciscan authors. This paper will examine the ways in which both the designer of the Verger de soulas and these authors employed similar strategies to encourage conformity with Christ and elicit compassio in their respective audiences. Christine Sciacca Columbia University The Donor as Viewer in the Gradual and Sacramentary of Hainricus Sacrista (Morgan Library, M. 711) One of the most lavishly decorated manuscripts produced between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries at Weingarten Abbey in southwestern Germany is the Gradual, Sequentiary, and Sacramentary of Hainricus Sacrista (New York, Morgan Library, M. 711). The book takes its name from six images of a monk, labeled twice with the inscription 'Hainricus sacrista', that appear on the silver repousse manuscript cover, and on several occasions in its miniatures and initials. In each case, the monk appears next to Mary or John, either proffering his book or supplicant at their feet. While scholars have been unable to identify Hainricus precisely, he is clearly the donor of the manuscript, and the garments in which he is depicted suggest his role as an officiant of the mass. The manuscript, therefore, presents an interesting case in the study of the role of the viewer, where the sole user of the text inserted himself into its images. What would it mean for Hainricus to see himself participating in key visual moments in the text related to redemption, such as the Annunciation, the Last Judgment, and the Coronation? This paper argues that through this arrangement Hainricus sought to insure his own salvation through his performance of the mass. Jessen Kelly University of Chicago The Viewer as King-maker: The Edinburgh Trinity Panels by Hugo van der Goes Late medieval Scotsmen often highlighted their separation from continental Europe, defining themselves as "dwelling at the limit of the world.. .beyond which lies no place of habitation." However, the Scottish commission of a large-scale altarpiece from the Netherlandish artist Hugo van der Goes in the 1470s suggests more ambitious circumstances. This paper examines how Hugo's now fragmented altarpiece (known as the Trinity Panels) enabled Scottish viewers to imagine themselves as inhabiting, not the limits, but the very center of cultural eminence and political power. The artist's portrayal of an open manuscript, inscribed with a legible hymn, constitutes the work's determining element in shaping viewer response to this end. The inscribed hymn subtly invokes the liturgical commemoration of the biblical story of King David, a ritual context that proffers a typological narrative of kingship to be mapped onto the altarpiece's depiction of the Scottish monarch James III. Although the liturgy enforces certain strictures on viewer interpretation, the relationship between David and James remains allusive. Thus the viewers remain a determining presence insofar as their collective performance and individual contemplation of the liturgy before the altarpiece are required to bring the likeness between David and James into being. Janet Robson Birkbeck College The Pilgrim's Progress: Strategies for Determining Viewer Experience in the Lower Church of San Francesco, Assisi The restructuring and expansion of the lower church of the Basilica of San Francesco in Assisi at the beginning of the fourteenth century has been seen as a response by the friars to the demands of lay pilgrims for closer access to the burial-place of St. Francis. An extensive new decorative programme points to the importance given to images in the promotion of the Saint's cult and in enhancing the religious experience of the visitor to the tomb. This paper examines evidence for the strategies adopted by the creators of the iconographic programme (both patrons and artists) to communicate a coherent message to the viewer. These strategies included the selection and placement of the frescoes within the site, the visual language adopted throughout the narrative scenes, the creation of a circulatory route around the lower church, and the possible role of friars as guides. The paper wil l consider whether these attempts to determine the viewer's experience were successful or not. Agnieszka Rojnowska-Sadraei Courtauld Institute of Art Glorifying Passion: Perception of Martyrdom in the Hagiography and Art of St Stanislas of Poland St Stanislas Szczepanow (1035-1079), Bishop of Cracow, was murdered on the orders of the Polish King, Boleslas II. In the only surviving contemporary record of events the chronicler Gallus Anonymus denounced the Bishop as a traditor. However, the Lives written in anticipation of, and after, Stanislas' canonization in 1253, together with works of art created in his honour, glorified him as a Holy Martyr and his Passion as Imitatio Christi. But how was an eleventh-century bishop transformed into a venerated martyr and the most revered of the patron saints of Poland? From traitor to martyr; hagiography and art were the main instruments of this transformation and this paper will endeavour to discover how they were used to mould the piety of the audience. The paper will focus on the spectacle of revelation and concealment of Stanislas' relics in Cracow cathedral and on the regular processions from the cathedral to the site of Stanislas' death in the nearby church of St Michael on the Rock. By following in the footsteps of pilgrims from different social classes -from royalty to Cracow merchants - the paper will also examine patterns of access to the shrine as well as the role of the viewer during the ritual. Elizabeth L Estrange University of Leeds Bleeding Bodies: Gender and Responses to Devotional Imagings This paper will explore women's responses to images in the fifteenth century. It has been argued by scholars like Caroline Walker Bynum that late-medieval devotional techniques, texts, and images, which promoted a bleeding and 'ferninised' Christ, offered women an identificatory space (via their bodies) in which they could escape, or subvert, patriarchal control. Such readings have been countered by critics who suggest that images of the 'feminised' Christ were promoted by the prevailing patriarchal ideology, effectively denying women the possibility of finding images liberating or subverting. With reference to late-medieval writings on devotion and mysticism, this paper will look at some images that were created for or used by women. Were these images used to promote a particular idea of female conduct or piety? In what context were they used and how might this have conditioned or affected responses? How did men respond to similar themes? In particular the paper will look again at the possibilities for women in the fifteenth century to appropriate devotional ideas and images for their own ends. George Ferzoco University of Leicester A Newly Discovered Mural of a Phallus Tree: Intentions and Receptions This paper discusses a newly discovered mural in Massa Marittima, south-west Tuscany, dealing with presuppositions of the viewer (indeed, the modem one as well as the medieval one). The main feature of this mural is a tree filled with phalluses, and beneath the tree are an assortment of women and eagles, as well as some of the tree's fruit. The paper suggests that contemporary medieval viewers would not have been horrified or scandalized by what many today consider obscene or unseemly imager)-. It treats the painting as an example of 'directed' viewing, created by a specific political party with propagandistic motives. Elements under consideration are: the location of the mural; its public setting; the privileging of women over male viewers; and its eventual censorship and obliteration (literal and figurative). Session 2: Articulated Body. Visual and Theoretical Approaches to Anthropomorphism Dr Anna Bentkowska Corpus of Romanesque Sculpture in Britain and Ireland, Courtauld Institute of Art Post-modernism seems to have hijacked the concept of body. Body was given a variety of forms and pnt it in the forefront of anthropological, gender and cultural studies among others. The recent introduction of digital body to the feminist and performance studies suggests that the emulation of this concept in other disciplines, including art historical discourse, is imminent. In parallel to those post-modern trends, art and architectural historians continue to explore pre-modern body by approaching the subject from more traditional, iconological positions. Whether corporeal or metaphysical, the 'old' bodies are generally easier to grasp: the medieval body was governed by cosmology, the Renaissance body was shaped by power and ideology, the Early Modern body-machine has taken the form of an automaton. The influence of the old forms of anthropomorphic symbolism and its iconography on modern artists and architects is noticeable but often unintended and seldom recognized. This session will address the issue of anthropomorphism in visual arts across chronological and geographical divides. Matthew Landrus Wolfson College, Oxford University Leonardo and Pre-modern Histories of Human Proportions An irony of the early history of human proportions is that so many different visual examples exist of obvious attempts to produce one crisply defined set of human proportions. Although very little is known about these early methods, evidence suggests that they are just guidelines, not straitjackets nor numerical prisons for a set ideal or proportion. According to Leonardo's manuscripts, it would appear that different sets of anthropometrical methods were used by artist/engineers. Unlike his predecessors, Leonardo's work exhibits these guidelines as unsolved problems, without any continued preference for one particular set of human proportions. The present paper examines this problem of received visual knowledge in his work on human proportions. At issue is his reason for using nine face-length and ten face-length anthropometrical standards. During the fifteenth century, Gauricus, Francesco di Giorgio, Taccola, Filarete, Alberti, Ghirlandaio and others were following the nine face-length guidelines that were popular in the East. At the same time, a Western, Vitruvian tradition of ten face-length representational proportions was popular among artist/engineers such as Filippo Brunelleschi, and Lorenzo and Buonaccorso Ghiberti. As will be shown with a short historical introduction to developments in the representations of human proportions, Leonardo was influenced by both mechanical arts and liberal arts traditions and was thereby accustomed to multiple modes of representation. Randall Rhodes Frostburg State University, MD Christ's Digestive Tract: An Alchemical Crucible for Salvation Hieronymous Bosch painted the Prado Epiphany circa 1510. Yet more important than the tribute paid by the Magi to the newborn King is the display of Christ's exteriority and interiority at the locus of this sacred drama. Enclosed in nakedness and disclosed in frailty, Christ is borne unto a landscape barren of faith, hope, and charity. Endowed as an agent for alchemical transmutation, Christ conjoins, multiplies, digests, and putrefies all that is worldly base within his own intestinal apparatus. The end product is the purified argent-vive which can fertilise the earth, bring forth fruit, and herald the eventual death of matter. Those magnetically drawn to this "goose which lays the golden egg" pray to partake in his scatological products. The man, standing at the doorway of the hut and marked by disruptions in his skin ego, yearns for the healing powers of the gold (spiritual renewal), frankincense (stoppage of bleeding and malignancies), myrrh (for hair loss), and faeces (for leprosy). Yet, as a Jew, he is unable to directly benefit due to issues of bodily space. As written in the Mishnah, he must remove himself four cubits from any nakedness and foul stench before professing his spiritual allegiance. This paper shall address Bosch's midrash and Christ's position as the tutelary image for spiritual and bodily salvation. The premise, presence, and person of God are thusly configured in terms of flesh and faeces, as the corporeal signs of the redemptive new world order. Frances Downing & Upali Nanda Texas A&M University Autopoiesis and the Emerging Aesthetics in Architecture Theories of evolution have impacted the art of architecture through significant movements visited and revisited in time as redefinitions of the Aesthetics of form. There is a powerful adjustment in architectural Aesthetics after Darwin and Spencer unleashed evolution as a way of thinking about the world. There had always been, through the recorded history of thought, a natural division between Attican and Arcadian aesthetics; i.e. the rational and the romantic where context, time, order, function and power had opposing form-giving definitions. But it was after the initial introduction of evolution that John Ruskin made his impassioned plea for the Gothic Revival to replace Renaissance neoPlatonic theories of form. The second insurgence of theories of evolution impacted Architecture after World War II with the introduction of "systems" theory and an initial foray by Buckminster Fuller into geodesic domes. An Emerging Aesthetics born mostly out of biology and complexity theory describes and evolving organism as its metaphor. Autopoiesis is the term used by biologists to describe the realm of existence for a living organism as it slides between the interchange of structure and information. Incoming information is filtered through the organism for its usefulness in the art of staying alive. Structural changes evolve as the organism adjusts to new information. This allegiance to Systems Theory has thrown Architecture into a frustrating theoretical trap. Architecture has a scale that must take gravity as one of its necessary components; gravity matters. Images of organisms and growth may be more naturally applied to urban, regional, and ecoregional design than they do at the scale of a building. The struggle against scale is now being fought as we seek "breathable," systemic buildings that adjust themselves to internal and external forces. In this paper, a rough outline of Ruskin's constructs from "The Lamp of Beauty" from The Seven Lamps of Architecture will be used and compared across a timeline that leads us to some interesting dilemmas in the "scale" of architecture and its relationship to systems theory. Paul Galvez Columbia University, New York When Landscape became Language Gustave Courbet's Landscape with Anthropomorphic Rocks is the product of a positivist age obsessed with the search for origins. In the arts as much as in the sciences, it was thought that by reading the external features of the landscape, by deciphering the hidden code in which it was written, one might come closer to discovering the deep, primordial origins of the world. What is fascinating about Courbet's landscape is that the language of nature has become a pictorial one, a language of the image. In the early nineteenth century, the language of nature was increasingly pictured by landscape artists as being anthropomorphic. Romantic painters such as Theodore Rousseau isolated massive, ancient trees as objects of depiction and turned them into surrogates for the absent academic figure. Picturesque guidebooks praised certain geological sites for their startling evocation of human form. However, all too often art-historical interpretation of these kind of paintings becomes a kind of treasure hunt, with the pot of gold being the uncovering of some new face or figure embedded in the landscape. Against this kind of literal anthropomorphism, the paper argues that the striking tactile and bodily presence of Courbet's landscapes depends less on the appearance of hidden human figures than on the artist's unique pictorial language for representing natural forms. Using the great Source de Loue series as a primary example, this paper will propose that the great breakthrough of Courbet's landscapes was to find a way to convey the sensuousness of the body without resorting to too blatant anthropomorphism. Kent Minturn Columbia University, New York Physiognomic Illegibility, Impossible Exchange: Jean Dubuffet's Postwar Portraits In the years immediately following World War II, through Surrealist novelist and lifelong friend, George Limbour, Jean Dubuffet established close relationships with important members of the French literary elite, including: Jean Paulhan, Henri Michaux, Antonin Artaud, Francis Ponge, Marcel Jouhandeau, Pierre Benoit, Charles-Albert Cingria and Joe Bousquet. Dubuffet depicted these writers in a series of comical, irreverent portraits and exhibited them at the Galerie Rene Drouin (October, 1947) under the sardonic title, Les gens sont bien plus beaux qu'ils croient [People Are More Beautiful Than They Think]. Dubuffet's foray into portraiture demonstrates his interest in painting the unarticulatable body, and in what I will call physiognomic illegibility. Portraiture, the long­ standing site of bourgeois subject formation, traditionally obeys the rules of mimesis and physiognomic likeness and promises a transparent view into the sitter's character or psyche. Dubuffet's goal was the exact opposite. "My portraits," he explained in 1947, "block any likeness;" they are "anti-portraits," "anti­psychological," "de-personalized," and "open to multiple interpretations." Through purely formal means Dubuffet de-motivates the relationship between signifier and signified ­in Dubuffet's hands le trait (the mark on the surface of the canvas) is no longer necessarily related to le trait (the inner character) of the person depicted. Dubuffet strategically presents collaborationist and resistance writers in the same light (contemporary critics were baffled — they could not decide whether Dubuffet was attacking or appeasing these writers), and in so doing reminds viewers that it is impossible, metaphorically speaking, to judge a book by its cover, or to collapse the notion of corps (a physical body) with corpus (a writer's body of work). Session 3: The Topography of Slavery: Re-Membering Metropolitan Space Annie E. Coombes Birkbeck College The commerce of slavery has indelibly transformed both the demography and topography of metropolitan centres in Europe, North America, the Caribbean and the African continent. There is a growing literature on various aspects of the history of the slave trade, in particular the Trans-Atlantic trade. This literature includes important new research on abolitionism, the experience of and technologies involved in the trans-Atlantic crossing, the involvement of various African states in the trade and its economic and cultural impact on those states, the survival and experience of slavery and rebellion and resistance. However, the ways in which slavery has marked and continues to mark metropolitan spaces has received less attention. This session aims to build on the research which has been produced as part of the UNESCO Slave Routes project and by colonial historians and literary historians of travel and other literature (including slave narratives) by focusing on the visual evidence and representation of the impact of the slave trade in the colonial and contemporary city. It will contain contributions which address both the historical dimension of the slave trade - the various transactions and exchanges between people, places and material culture - and current concerns about how to adequately represent the more complex aspects of this history to a contemporary audience in heritage sites, museum exhibitions and film, without diminishing an acknowledgment of the horrors of the trade. Simon Schaffer Cambridge University Enlightenment Knowledge and the Slave Networks The first historian of London's Royal Society, writing in the later seventeenth century, judged it the twin of the Royal Africa Company. Atlantic slave stystems relied on and produced, networks of importance for the making of natural knowledge in early eighteenth century-Britain. By replacing these knowledges in their original context of long-range exploitation and commerce, this paper explores the mutual constitution of the slave economies and the natural philosophies of enlightened society: cases discussed include those of Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton, Hans Sloane and Colin Maclaurin. Carmen Fracchia Birkbeck College Representing the Slave Trade in Early Modern Spanish Urban Space This paper will focus on the visual evidence of the slave trade in early modern cities of Castille and Andalusia. Although notoriously few in number, these images: the representations of the « miracle of the black leg « , the portraits of anonymous people in domestic settings, and the exceptional works of Juan de Pareja, a slave painter in Madrid (at the core of the Habsburg Court ) all show the impact of the slave's presence in metropolitan Spain. The paper will draw on the documented workings of the slave market together with recently published statistics on transactions between people and places, prices, taxes and auctions held in key urban spaces. It will consider the influence of slavery on laws and institutions created by the establishment to control the slave's social behaviour in the city. The role of the inquisition, the impact of slavery on Spanish contemporary thought and the treatment of slaves in Spanish early modern households wil l also be analysed. Ana Lucia Araujo Universite Laval. Quebec Representing Slavery in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) during the Nineteenth Century: the Contradictory Images of Debret, Rugendas and Biard During the first half of the nineteenth century, Afro-American slave presence in Brazilian cities (mainly in Rio de Janeiro) is represented by several artists who travel to Brazil, including Manet, Debret, Rugendas and Biard. Analysing engravings taken from the travel accounts of Jean-Baptiste Debret (1768-1848), Johann Moritz Rugendas (1802-1858) and Francois-Auguste Biard (1799-1882) I will identify the different ways these artists represent slavery, by focussing on their contradictory visions as a result of their relationship to the Brazilian monarchy at the tune. Some lithographs by Debret and Rugendas in 'Voyage pittoresque et historique au Bresil' (1834) and 'Voyage pittoresque dans le Bresil' (183 5) clearly denounce the corporal punishment suffered by Afro-American slaves. But most of the engravings in these accounts, represent the Afro-American through a series of idealized images following the neoclassic canons. On the other hand, in his book 'Deux annees au Bresil' (1862), Biard satirizes the condition of slavery: most engravings illustrating the scenes of urban life in Rio de Janeiro are almost caricatures of the Afro-Americans, who are ridiculed and represented in a comical manner. Nigel Worden University of Cape Town Tracing Slavery in the City: The Recovery of Slave Pasts in Cape Town Slaves from Asia, south-east Africa and Madagascar formed the mainstay of the labour force of Cape Town for almost 200 years (1650s-1838) and slave descendants continue to be a sizeable element in the city's population today. Yet few Capetonians- and still fewer outsiders — seem aware of the fact. This paper examines some of the reasons for the collective amnesia over the slave past in twentieth century Cape Town. The main focus, however, is on more recent attempts in post-apartheid Cape Town to recover a slave heritage and to insert it into the narratives of museums, tourist experiences and spatial organization of the modern city. Examples include planned 'Slave Trail' walks, the reincarnation of a central museum as the Slave Lodge', the public commemorations of Emancipation Day and controversies over building development on sites of slave significance. Spatial perception and identity are crucial to much of this. The paper argues that the invocation of a slave heritage in Cape Town is a highly-complex process which involves many-contesting role players, including the central state, municipal authorities, building developers, those with claims to 'special knowledge' (ranging from academics to slave descendants) and those without it. It argues that contesting issues of identity in a South Africa struggling to construct a national unity are fundamental in explaining the ways in which slavery is being represented in Cape Town and the ways in which it is not. Joy Gregory London College of Printing Memory and Skin An event, which occurred less than halfway through this millennium, forged an unbreakable but uneasy link between the continents of Asia, America, Africa and Europe. So dramatic was this episode that it changed the destiny of these places and people forever. The change these regions experienced was political, physical and economic, altering the way these regions and their inhabitants were viewed by themselves and others and how they themselves viewed the world. Memory and Skin is a piece of work which combines photography, text, sound and other media to explore the issues of fragmentation, layering and contradiction that form the relationship between Europe and the Caribbean. These elements are present in everyday conversations, points of view, the sound and rhythms of the street, and perhaps most tellingly in the language and skin of the people. Dr. Nigel Rigby National Maritime Museum Representing Slavery at the National Maritime Museum In May 1999, the National Maritime Museum opened twelve new galleries, among which was the Wolfson Gallery of Trade and Empire. It was the first time that the Museum had devoted an entire gallery to the maritime aspects of empire, although you could argue that empire had been implicit, if unquestioned, in nearly every exhibition that had been put on. The gallery provoked a determined attack in the press, particularly for its treatment of the slave trade, and was accused of being 'politically correct' and biased in its depiction of slavery, of ignoring the good that came from empire in favour of an emphasis on the bad, and of encouraging guilt for a part of its history that Britain should be proud of. There was also, however, praise for the Museum for its attempt to tackle a difficult subject in unconventional ways. This paper will concentrate on the ways in which slavery was represented in the gallery, what was found objectionable and praiseworthy in those displays and why, and how the Museum responded to the criticisms, both in the shorter and longer term. It will also attempt an analysis of the various factors at work in the public display of controversial topics. Tony Tibbies Merseyside Maritime Museum, National Museums Liverpool Interpreting Slavery: the Liverpool Experience. This paper will describe the development of the Transatlantic Slavery: Against Human Dignity Gallery which opened at the Merseyside Maritime Museum, Liverpool in October 1994. It will examine how the project was organised and explore some of the issues involved in creating the gallery including consultation with community and academic interests, the choice of material to display, preparing the text and the design of the gallery. The paper will also consider the response of visitors to the gallery and its impact. It will conclude with a brief summary of the subsequent programmes, exhibitions and activities organised to support the gallery including educational and public events such as International Slavery Day. Session 4: Photography: History, Theory, Practice Lynda Nead & Patrizia di Bello Birkbeck College, University of London What is the role of the study of the photographic image, within the wider study of art and visual culture? How can we articulate the specificities of the photographic image? Or are these best articulated by considering photographic images in the visual, textual and tactile cultures within which they are used? This session aims to promote debate on, and make a contribution to, the future development of photography within visual arts studies, and to represent a variety of different approaches to the history and theory of photography. Robin Kelsey Harvard University Unconscious Inclusions: in William Henry Fox Talbot's The Pencil of Nature There is a critical passage in The Pencil of Nature, in which Talbot considers the propensity of the photograph to include unexpected details, tiny bits of pictorial matter that escaped the notice of the operator at the time of exposure. This paper will tease out some of the implications of this passage with respect to the interpretation of all pictures in the age of photography. Art historians endlessly reiterate the admonishment against treating old photographs as if they were paintings. This paper will reverse the equation and ask whether the habitual treatment of paintings as having been encoded unconsciously with momentary significance subject to revelation only through retrospective extraction (whether via psychoanalytic or ideological interpretive strategies, for example) does not mistake the painting for a photograph. Lindsay Smith University of Sussex Back to the Future The medium of photography and the developmental category of childhood, as we have come to understand it, emerge concurrendy. Following the public announcement of the daguerreotype in Paris in 1839 increasingly a kinship arises between child and photograph whereby the figure of a child comes to represent the most apt object for a photographic lens. Recent criticism has addressed the middle class Victorian male fascination with the little girl as a desire to re-connect with an initial but long-lost feminine phase. In such a narrative, the medium of photography as a relatively novel form of visual representation simply operates as one of many tools in the period that allow such a fantasy of loss to take hold. This paper brings to the fore that which is implicit in the assumed naturalness of a connection between an emergent concept of childhood and an emergent mode of mechanical reproduction. It explores that which is at stake in reading, as either a desire to be or as a desire for the child, nineteenth century investments in childhood. Re-thinking processes of identification in terms other than those of loss, the paper substitutes the future for the past tense. It does so in order to newly address the peculiar and neglected relationship of the child photograph to futurity, to articulate a relationship between child and photograph in terms of immanence. Steve Edwards Open University Grotesque Aesthetics. Photography Then and Now Contemporary constructed or staged photography is much taken with grotesque figures and tableaux. This paper shifts this emphasis to examine the grotesque spaces of the photographic image through an engagement with debates on 'incongrous backgrounds' in the commercial photography of thel 860s. On the basis of this material, I argue that non-staged photography is no less rooted in a grotesque aesthetic. This aesthetic form is one of the key ways in which photography is connected to capital. Patrizia di Bello Birkbeck College Vision and Touch Thus paper considers the interaction between \ision and touch in the presentation and re-presentation of images of celebrities in carte de visite photographs, and in illustrated women's magazines. The development of photography is most usually addressed critically through theories of vision and the gaze. But, unlike paintings or films, photographs are made not just to be looked at, but also handled. In the nineteenth century, images of oneself and of loved or admired people, could be for the first time obtained relatively cheaply and in quantities, through amateur photography, cartes de visite and their reproduction in illustrated magazines. These images, made available to the visual and tactile reach of a mass audience, engendered modes of looking, handling, touching, playing and collecting, that would have been virtually impossible with earlier forms of portraiture. In women's magazines, in particular, photographs were re-produced (as engravings) or talked about in a context that emphasised the importance of a 'lady's touch' in humanising and domesticating consumer culture and mass production. Touch has been most consistently associated with femininity, from medieval reflections on the senses through to twentieth century feminist philosophy, for example in the work of Luce Irigaray. Theories of the gaze, on the other hand, have tended to focus on its masculine connotations. This paper aims to contribute to an historical investigation of such associations, arguing that the interaction of visual and tactile values in the ways in which women used and consumed mass visual culture, generated meanings specifically associated with a feminine embodied gaze, and with the complex nature of women's experiences of modernity. David Evans Arts Institute at Bournemouth Le Corbusier, Photography, and the Architecture of the Book This paper re-examines the use of found photographs in one of the most famous avant­garde manifestoes of the twentieth century -Le Corbusier's Vers uneArchitecture (Paris, 1923). Part 1 offers an overview of commentary, ranging from the author's self-penned advance publicity to the recent analyses of Beatriz Colomina. Particular attention will be paid to what has been written about the book's well-known juxtaposition of Ancient Greek temples and modern sports cars. Part 2 offers a new perspective by comparing Vers une Architecture with other attempts to create an articulation of the classical and modem through photography. Examples to be discussed will include the use of classical artefacts in the satirical photomontages of the Berlin Dadaists and in the photographically-based publicity of Herbert Bayer. Mark Haworth-Booth Victoria and Albert Museum Photo-based Art - or Photography? This paper discusses different versions of photography presented in art museums. Museums interested in photo-based art have tended to pursue a version of photography limited to a particular roster of contemporary and internationally-recognised names. Museums with Photography Departments tend to see the medium in broader terms, as a visual language inflected in many subde ways and applied to a variety of (often conflicting) ends. The paper draws on two exhibitions held recendy in the Canon Photography Gallery at the Victoria and Albert Museum: 'Seeing Things: Photographing Objects, 1850-2001' and '100 Photographs: A Collection by Bruce Bernard'. 'Seeing Things' was shown in 2002 and is now being expanded into a book. It looks at the idea of the still life, familiar from fine art traditions, and stretches it to fit a broad spectrum of photographic activity. The range includes different kinds of documentary photography, reportage, fashion, advertising, as well as fine art photography. The sequence of exhibition and book is divided into six sections. Each section is prefaced by a contemporary image or images and then presents a chronological sequence back to the present. Adrian Rifkin Middlesex University (A)part from sex...? Taking off from some images chosen amongst Andres Serrano's series 'A history of Sex' I will pose the above question in terms of a number of problems. One of these concerns the relation between a geometry of the gaze and the represented thing; another is to do with the fading of the distinction between work like Serrano's and the self-representation as an object of the gaze that is the vernacular of sex on the internet, ­something that signals the death of pornography; a third might be the death of the punctum in this very consumer phantasm of presence in the photograph; and a fourth, on the contrary, might be precisely the persistance of the uncanny despite this spectacularity. Between these problems, what is the value of a discourse on photography? Michael Hatt University of Nottingham To see the Shadow You Become: Sculpture and Photography, c.1900 To discuss movement in the context of photography is inevitably to invoke the work of photographers like Muybridge and Marey. There is a well-trodden path leading from their attempts to capture motion in photographs to the moving images of early cinema, a gradual enlivening of the body, from stasis to kinesis. While this narrative is in many respects wholly plausible, it ignores the relationship of photography to other media. This paper will discuss the problem of motion and stasis at the turn of the twentieth century, and will explore the limits of movement's representability by juxtaposing photography with sculpture. Here, it becomes evident that attempts to represent the moving body not only fail, but must necessarily fail. Just as sculpture is haunted by a dream of dissolution, of the statue's thawing into mobile life, so the photographer might too be viewed as Pygmalion; an artist who has realised the futility of carving and understands that the phenomenal body wil l only be glimpsed in the momentary, ephemeral and insubstantial image that haunts the lens. In each medium, the body does not move, but becomes a screen for the projection of fantasies of movement; and in each medium, it is the failure to represent movement that makes them ideal sites for these fantasies. Victor Burgin Goldsmiths College Marker Marked With the exception of a few seconds of real-time movement, Chris Marker's film La Jetee (1964) is composed entirely of still images. Following the initial credits sequence, an intertitle emerges from black to announce: 'This is the story of a man marked by an image from childhood'. In my paper I explore the opposition between 'still' and 'moving' in La Jetee from the basis of the question: 'What does it mean to be marked by an image?' Jaime Stapleton Goldsmiths College The Art of Photography: the Extension of Copyright to Photographic Images From the inception of 'chemical' photography in the late 1830s, a debate raged in England and France over the potential of the new medium to carry the 'subjective' creative imprint of the camera operator, and whether by extension, the activity of photography could be considered an 'art'. This paper argues that a defining locus of these debates lay in developments vrithin the legal and economic infrastructure that surrounded the new medium. The economic regulation of the early photographic industry centred on the control of 'hardware' through the use of patents on cameras. The later shift towards regulating the economy of photographic images (or 'software') through the use of copyright law necessitated a remapping of prevailing socio-economic definitions of aesthetic subjectivity. The new legal and economic grounding of creative labour entailed a redefinition of concepts of expression and composition, anticipating the broader re-inscriptions of the art practices of early twentieth Modernism. The paper concludes by considering whether the technical developments of the 'digital era' have constituted a similar refocusing of copyright law and whether, by extension, a parallel reshaping of the social and economic grounding of aesthetic/creative production is now underway. David Bate University of Westminster Towards Theory in History of Photography The theory of photography has in recent decades been dominated by semiotics and psychoanalysis, but this has not permeated into the history of photography. This paper addresses this question: the relations between a theory of photographic meaning and the writing of the history of photography. Such a problematic is compounded by the fact that modern aesthetics have moved on to incorporate those imaging systems that were once thought impossible to belong to art or as a critical practice, i.e.'digi-cam' imaging. Drawing on the methods developed in my forthcoming book on Photography and Surrealism, the paper suggests models of theory for a history of the media. Session 5: Articulating an Alternative Modern Architecture Deborah Ascher Barnstone Washington State University School of Architecture; Alexandra Stara School of Architecture and Landscape, Kingston University, UK Almost concurrent with the avant-garde of modernism in the 1920s there emerged another tendency, which is formulated as both an elaboration and critique of the former. Often discussed as an 'alternative' modernism, this tendency is articulated in the work of such diverse architects as Alvar Aalto, Aldo Van Eyck, Giancarlo di Carlo, Denys Lasdun, Luis Barragan, Louis Kahn and Willem Marinus Dudok, among others. What characterises this architecture - and distinguishes it from postmodernism in its various guises - is its embrace of the humanist ideal of modernism and its aim at social reform, while, at the same time, insisting on the importance of place and inhabitation against the universalising abstraction of technology. The backbone of this 'other' modernism remains the 'interpretation of a new way of life valid for our period', as Sigfried Giedion put it, but the novelty is no longer understood as an unsituated tabula rasa; instead, the modern is seen as ontologically grounded in cultural and topological continuities. This architecture tends to privilege the poetic over the merely functional or aesthetic and, being resistant to fashion and trend, tends to fall outside the usual categories of design classification. This session explores the architecture which continues to articulate the 'alternative modern' ethos of building from the 1920s to the present. Jonathan Massey Syracuse University Plastic Humanitarian Space: Changing What counts as humanism in architecture? This paper considers the question historically by contrasting two key interpretations of Frank Lloyd Wright's "organic architecture." In Towards an Organic Architecture (1946) and Architecture as Space (1957), Bruno Zevi promoted a postfunctionalist approach that would humanize modern architecture by giving it the qualities Zevi recognized in Wright's "plastic humanitarian space": human scale, local character, and sensitivity to the "concrete experience" of its occupants. While Zevi privileged space as the primary register of architectural humanism, earlier discourses of architectural humanism usually accorded that position to ornament. For instance, Wright's inclusion in the 193 2 International Style exhibition was qualified by Henry-Russell Hitchcock's criticism of the "individualist humanitarianism" he recognized in Wright's ornament. Contrasting Hitchcock's reading of Wright with Zevi's brings into focus a shift in the conception of "humanism" in modern architectural discourse: from the mid-nineteenth-century Christian view oudined by John Ruskin in The Stones of Venice (1851-53) - wherein humanism is articulated in ornament through criteria such as uniqueness, figurative liberty, and handicraft imperfections - to the mid­twentieth-century view of Zevi, wherein humanism is articulated in space through responsiveness to program, site, and bodily scale. Zevi's reframing of Wright contributed to the emergence of a critical framework that supported the work of Alvar Aalto and other alternative modernists. In tracing the genealogy of that critical framework, this paper historicizes a discourse that legitimated a key strand of postwar modernism by privileging space, rather than ornament, as the proper register of architectural humanism. Magarita McGrath Virginia Polytechnic University Authenticity and transparency of means work to circumscribe modernism's concept of beauty, obliging a correspondence between intent and process to achieve an "honest" use of material. Forgotten are the slights of hand used by the masters to heighten aesthetic effects or to unveil structural forces. Delight is taken in silence. This paper looks to the work of two Viennese architects - Josef Hoffman and Joze Plecnik — whose careers coincided with the emergence of modernism. Neither conformed to its proscriptions, but chose instead to work in the classical idiom. Disparaged by their contemporaries and mostly overlooked by historians, the compelling work nevertheless needs no apologists. This investigation will focus on the persistence of ornament in their work specifically as it occurs as a form of tectonic expression. Tectonic beauty arises in Karl Boetticher's nineteenth century study Die Tektonik der Hellenen. Gottfried Semper [1803­ 1879] extends the separation between Boetticher's Kunstform and Kernform, reaffirming that art is distinguished from nature by the overcoming and suppression of how an object was made. Otto Wagner [1841-1918], in whose employ both our "Joes" launched their careers, disagreed. For Wagner, beauty in form is contingent upon the expression of means itself. Hoffmann and Plecnik's work diverges at the question of whether material is perceived as a passive or active presence. Hoffmann, the magician, divines a soul for the stone; Plecnik, the monk, releases it. Yet in both of their tectonics, it is the expression of the forces and material inherent in architecture that offers ornament a status of immunity against the criminal allegations of modernism. Alessandra Como Seconds Universita di Roma The 1930s House Designed by Costenza, Rudofsky and Ponti in Naples, Capri and Positano The paper is an investigation of the influences of Mediterranean architecture on the modern house project. The paper collocates itself inside the current debate on the reconsideration of certain aspects of Modernism and of its re-interpretation. The general issue is therefore an understanding of the Modern Movement, not considered anymore as a uniform and monolithic movement but as a complex and differentiated whole. In particular, the paper focuses on three architects: Luigi Cosenza, Bernard Rudofsky and Gio' Ponti, linked during the '30s and '40s with various projects and common interests in the Mediterranean architecture. Through the study of selected projects, designed by Cosenza and Rudofsky in Naples, Positano and Procida, and by Rudofsky and Ponti in Capri, I will investigate the relationship between their studies, writings and theoretical research and the modern project of the house. The selected works, combining will be used as case -studies in order to investigate a modernity that found roots and reasons in the local tradition, interpreting that with a strong evocative emphasis, still in modem terms and forms. The paper will consider the issue in relation to the Italian debate (with reference to Pagano, Figini and Pollini, and Persico), and also relating that to a larger international scene. Christine Macy Dalhousie University The Modernism of TVA Housing Projects The town of Norris, built by the Tennessee Valley Authority from 193 3­1936, should have a place in the pantheon of modernist architecture in the United States - as do Greenbelt, MD and Radburn, NJ. Yet while the design of Norris was widely seen as modern, even socialist, when it was first published in 1933, subsequent historiography has been less generous to the social, programmatic and technological innovations of this modern town. Although TVA housing was discounted in the post­war era because its regional aesthetic didn't conform to the increasingly rigid mandates of modernist architecture then being promoted, when TVA designers were working on their new towns, they saw themselves as "bearers of the torch," designers of socially progressive, government-run modern housing that in many cases, was mass-manufactured. To be sure, the goal of the TVA was to modernize the Tennessee River Valley, but they aimed to do this in a way that would respect local traditions and in fact anchor people more closely to the culture of the region. TVA planners were aware of the potential contradictions between the imperative for technological modernization and their support of the folk ideal. Hiring anthropologists to research regional life styles, they attempted to accommodate local ways of life while providing modern amenities like electrical appliances and using modern materials and construction techniques such as steel sash, cinder block, and asbestos board. The houses reveal this hybrid form of modernization. In the TVA, new technologies were brought into these new homes to serve the family, and the "folk" were re-integrated into the national economy as consumers and producers. This was an ideal of a landscape in which nature, people and technology would be reconciled, a landscape that still holds lessons for us today. Patrick Lynch Kingston University and the Architectural Association Naturalness and Time: The Problem of Typology in Modern and Post-Modern Architecture Modernist and Post-Modernist architectural theory restates the Beaux-Arts notion of building 'typology' as the key to understanding the relationship between a 'program' and the expression of this organization as 'character'. Sir Nikolaus Pevsner's 'History of Building Types' published in 1961, attempts to reposition twentieth century Modernist architecture within historical continuity understood as a rational approach to building. Similarly, Aldo Rossi's 'Architecture of the City' and his ideas concerning analogy and type, attempted to establish a historical basis for 1970s Italian architecture as a rational and pseudo-vernacular tradition, which affirmed a logical basis for cultural renewal and building in historic city centres. Simultaneously, an international group of architects met each year to present their studies to Giancaro Da Carlo's ILA&UD. The English contribution was published as 'Italian Thoughts' by A+S Smithson in 1993, and understands architecture as the articulation of place. The Smithsons'described a historical consciousness as a sensibility infused with circumspection for the examples old things give us of the human condition and its adaptability and resilience: 'Naturalness, the feeling we experience of a (City) fabric being ordered, when we do not understand the place at a glance or do not know the building we use the 'conglomerate ordering' For a conglomerate building's principal organisation is not one of carefully composed shapes and volumes, but one of a much rougher assembly, which needs its imagined activities to complete it. Robert McCarter University of Florida, Gainesville Louis I. Kahn and Aldo van Eyck: Parallels in the Other Tradition of Modern Architecture In 1959, Louis I . Kahn was invited by-Peter and Alison Smithson to attend the CIAM meeting in Otterlo, The Netherlands, where Kahn was witness to the formation of Team 10. Kahn gave a lecture at the end of this, the first Team 10 meeting, and presented several of his projects, which were published in the group's later summary manifesto, Team Ten Primer. It was here that Kahn first met Aldo van Eyck, the Dutch founder of Team Ten, whose design process and buildings so amazingly paralleled Kahn's own. From van Eyck's and Kahn's ingenious public housing projects of the 1 940s; to van Eyck's Orphanage in Amsterdam and Kahn's Trenton Jewish Community Center of the exact same date, 19S5; to van Eyck's Roman Catholic Church in The Hague and Kahn's First Unitarian Church in Rochester; to van Eyck's Sonsbeek Sculpture Pavilion in Arnhem and Kahn's Trenton JCC Bath House - the parallels with Kahn's own work are numerous and striking. Kahn would also be deeply influenced by van Eyck's remarkable design theory, and his positive attitude towards history and antipathy towards progress, finding in van Eyck's statements remarkable parallels to his own evolving ideas. The continuity of the these shared ideas in the "other" tradition of modern architecture may be explored by tracing the "lineage" for modern "matt" buildings from Kahn's Trenton Jewish Community Center and van Eyck's Orphanage, through Team 10 member (and Le Corbusier employee) Shad Wood's Berlin Free University, to Le Corbusier's Venice Hospital project. Eeva-Liisa Pelkonen Yale University Making of Aalto as the 'Other' A glance at recent monographs and surveys proves that Alvar Aalto has become a symbolic type who represents spontaneous creativity within a movement that was presumably corrupted by rationalization and commodification. The paper will trace how he came to occupy such a position. I will focus on a ten-year period between 1931-41, when Aalto's international fame was cemented by Swiss architectural historian Sigfried Giedion, British architect-critic Morton Shand, and Museum of Modern Art's John McAndrew. The paper outlines four key moments: 1. 1 93 0/31: The Stockholm Exhibition 193 0 introduce international critics to Nordic modernism. Giedion and Shand herald Aalto as a fresh voice from the North. Shand talks about "Scandinavian grace." 2. 1933: Exhibitions in London, Copenhagen and Milan cement Aalto's international fame. In a postcard Giedion refers to Aalto as the "Magus of the North." 3. 1937/38: The Finnish Pavilion in Paris World Exhibition attracts the attention of John McAndrew, who invites Aalto to hold a retrospective at the Museum of Modern Art the Following year. The catalogue situates Aalto against the 1920s architecture by celebrating the 'personal, national and organic' in his work. 4. 1941: Giedion's essay "Irrationality and Standard," which later formed the kernel of the Aalto chapter in the 2nd edition of Space, Time and Architecture (1949), defines Aalto as a quintessentially Finnish architect I will point out that Aalto's international reception was supported by cultural ideas about the East and the North as abodes for creativity and spirituality, and will argue that these ideas gained momentum during the rise of extreme nationalism in early 1930s only to intensify during the Second World War. I will conclude by speculating how Aalto's reception influenced his work and persona. Session 5: Articulating an Alternative Modern Architecture Gevork Hartoonian University of Sydney Louis I. Kahn @ 40s: Architecture in 50s By the 1950s, architects had to revisit the problematic relationship between technology and architecture and the universal vocation of modernity. Each of these has been a hunting subject for modern architecture. People like Sigfried Giedion, Louis Kahn and Lewis Mumford addressed many formative themes, including monumentality, regionalism and a desire for civic architecture. At the heart of these revisionist approaches was the emerging mass culture in the United States and the possibility of transplanting technologies developed in military industry into architectural production. One result of this would be Utopian landscapes whose image, ironically, coincided with the image-world generated by the mass culture if not the spectacles of Archigram. Another was the lip service paid to the idea of "people," implied in the work of Team Ten and others. Presenting a critical reading of Kahn's famous essay on "monumentality", written in the early 40s, this essay discusses his early work and attempts to historicize Kahn not only within the sociopolitical situation of the postwar years, but also within the project of modern architecture. This dual dimension of Kahn's work is dismissed by those scholars who see his work in the general visa of architecture's history, and by those who contextualize Kahn's work merely within the discursive formation of the postwar America. Focusing on Kahn's early architecture, this essay wishes to address issues critical for the present historiography of architecture when in spite or rather because of postmodernity one could consider modernity neither as a perfect past, nor a phenomenon working towards its completion, but a totalized project. Peter Schneider University of Colorado, Denver Encounter with the Other: Louis Kahn and the Practice of the Possible C. S. Lewis observed that we have two fundamentally different organs through which we construe the world: 'reason, our organ of truth,' and 'imagination, our organ of meaning.' Canonical modernism can be seen as a product of reason: of truth, and certainty. The 'other' modernism can be understood as a product of the imagination: of meaning, and possibility. This other way of looking at modernism in architecture is particularly evident in the thought and work of Louis Kahn. Kahn engaged the 'otherness' in architecture in a way that radically-changed architecture's histories and practices in the late-twentieth century. Kahn persistently imagined situations/spaces of opportunity - in and through which architecture stood revealed in its glory. It was through those luminous spaces that the 'otherness' of architecture could be encountered: the transparent spaces in which one met the building 'as it talked to you,' as it 'gave you answers and grew and became itself.' Kahn developed and refined two idiosyncratic but nevertheless precise practices that allowed these spaces of opportunity to form themselves. The first was his unique method of unwrapping the program to uncover the project beneath the project, the program within the program. The second was his improbable practice of talking to things: bricks, windows, mountains, rooms, buildings. This paper examines those coupled practices, and discusses the opportunities instanced in their intersections. It unravels the thread that runs through the labyrinth of Kahn's ideas to expose the unique method behind his apparent madness: the offerings to that other architecture he crafted through his persistent practice of the possible. Christopher Macdonald University of British Columbia Cabin and Camp: Modernism comes to Vancouver The manner in which a modern ethos arrives, and is assimilated into the architectural culture of western Canada is distinguished by its relationship to the cultural practices of second homes in the local landscape. The traditions of 'cabin and camp' bring with them a confident regard between interior and exterior, compositional informality and constructional pragmatism with material constraint: all of which proved sympathetic to accommodating various modern precepts while also providing a distinct local inflection. The discussion begins with a description of emblematic settlements in the hinterland surrounding Vancouver and attempts to locate their value and significance in both social and architectural terms. Building on this base, several seminal house designs built during the formulation of a local modernism are explored. These include the B.C. Binning House (Thompson Berwick and Pratt with Binning, 1941), the Copp House (Ron Thorn, 1950) and Barry Downs House (Downs, 1958). The exploration focuses upon attitudes to siting, and especially topography, the use of constructional logics as a primary source of expressive intent and the adaptation of 'free' or open planning tactics to modestly scaled residences. Finally, the paper considers the implications of local modern practices in residential design in broader terms. Here the point of connection with prior traditions of 'cabin and camp' emphasize the domestic realm as a retreat focused upon its natural surroundings, inadvertently emphasizing modernism as a rarified stylistic idiom. As a result, the vitality of these early works proved unable to find a clear extension into the contemporary expansion of popular suburban housing or to help in the formulation of an appropriate and local modern urban design. Barnabas Calder Cambridge University) 'Denys Lasdun' New Court Building in Christ's College, Cambridge Lasdun's New Court is a classic piece of 1960s Modernism, with prefabricated exposed concrete, stepped section, two-level access and lots of south-facing glazing. Is it, as many of its critics maintain, a monstrous imposition on the delicate fabric of Cambridge architecture? Alternatively is it, as its admirers say, in fact responding in a thoughtful way to the locally specific traditions of collegiate accommodation, and to the building's location in a college composed of blocks of all periods and styles from the early sixteenth century onwards? The evidence of other Lasdun projects is relevant: the National Theatre's much advertised relationship to the Thames; the nature of Lasdun's local research into East End housing when planning his 'cluster­blocks'; his response to the Nash surroundings in designing the Royal College of Physicians in Regent's Park. As a resident of New Court, I have not only had ample opportunity to come to my own appreciation of the building, but I have also been able to collect the views of a large number of undergraduate residents. Do the disparaging views of some of these students indicate that, whatever its theoretical sensitivity, the building has failed in its primary purpose, and if so, why? New Court is widely perceived to be a problematic building to maintain, and the current debate on its future makes discussion of its place in the Modern tradition a matter of priority. Mark Cottle Georgia Institute of Technology Tectonic Elements and their Spatial Implications in the Work of Gigon/Guyer This paper looks at the contemporary practice of Annette Gigon and Mike Guyer in Switzerland, examining the 'embodied tectonics' of five exemplary projects: the Kirchner Museum in Davos, the Liner Museum in Appenzell, the Expansion of the Museum of Art in Winterthur, and the Sports Centre and the Workshop Building in Davos. Gigon/Guyer's work is carefully situated, in the context of Swiss village life, and within contemporary Swiss construction culture, and much could be written about their production within that milieu. But rather than focus on how buildings are fabricated per se, I am interested here in exploring how spaces may be constructed by the experience of a thinking and feeling subject ? as one engages bodily in a tectonics of phenomena. Toward that end, I intend to provide close formal readings of these projects, involving my visits to the buildings, together with the following conceptual apparatuses: Semper's taxonomy of building elements and related crafts/technologies; Schmarsow's thesis of space, developed through 'kinetic vision' and the 'gait'; and Ruskin's formulation of 'the intelligent eye'. I find Gigon/Guyer's work exemplary and admirable in many regards: modest, thoughtful, and incredibly precise in understanding and responding to the complexities of producing architectural experience. Much can be gained from a careful analysis of their work, and by attention to the sensitivity and clarity with which they approach the contingencies embedded in each project. Dana Buntrock University of California at Berkeley Examining the Role of the Influential Outside: Two Examples from Japan Terunobu Fujimori and Osamu Ishiyama accept yet challenge modernism, draw upon tradition and novelty, and promote deliberately rough and naive ways of building in a country where it is easier to achieve elegance. Each exploits individual contributions to construction, whether crafted or clumsy, and refers to personal fictions and humor. Fujimori plants punning materials in the envelope of his buildings (e.g. grass/glass or leeks/leaks); Ishiyama's deliberately referential building components suggest coffins or spaceships. Fujimori's buildings are small in size but monumental in scale, enlivened by handmade finishes or adaptations of historical materials. Small, traditional details are also common in his work, especially where the hand touches the building. He also includes roughly hewn trees from the property his family has owned since the twelfth century and frequently finishes wall and roofs with living plants. In Ishiyama's buildings, the incorporation of traditional materials (such as roof tiles and plaster) is done with an allegiance to trades that many willingly accept as lost. But he combines these materials wit h corrugated culvert pipe, aluminum cans and even wetsuit fabrics, creating a temporal overlap that embraces both the past and a Buck Rogers future. The call for papers refers to an architecture that "tends to privilege the poetic over the merely functional or aesthetic and, being resistant to fashion and trend, tends to fall outside the usual categories of design classification." There is no better description these architects' idiosyncratic works, at once outside the mainstream and widely appreciated for the challenge they offer. Tim Gough Kingston University Alternative Abstractions of Modernist Architecture Le Corbusier and Ozenfant in Purism (1921) state the goal of Purist art as placing "the spectator in a state of a mathematical quality, that is, a state of an elevated order". This paper will take the poetic possibility of abstraction in the work of "modernist" architects as a guiding thread for an investigation of an alternative modernism in the twentieth century. If there is a modernism defined by the "universalising abstraction of technology" and the "unsituated tabula rasa" as pre-requisite for the creativity of the aesthetic genius, the argument will be made for an alternative modernism concerned and working with abstraction not instrumentally, but in a manner which, in making its own representation a subject for itself, gives space for a resonant creativity. The contrast will be drawn between a "figurative" and aesthetic understanding of art and architecture on the one hand; and "abstraction" as a practice/theory where - mimesis folds back on that which is mimed, and effects it (destroying its "originality") - the act of mimesis speaks of that act itself, saying something of itself - and (thus) affects the work and affects the mimesis of the work in a movement of staging The aim will be at once to rescue abstraction from technological reduction, and to show abstraction as an ongoing theme for architecture. Session 6: Articulating Meanings in Late Medieval and Early Modern Interiors Rupert Shepherd Department of Western Art, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford Flora Dennis AHRB Centre for the Study of the Domestic Interior, Royal College of Art, Kensington The acts of building, decorating, furnishing, using and representing interiors are laden with meanings, implied or explicit. These meanings can inform us about the interiors' creators, owners and users; about political, social and familial aspirations and attitudes; and about the reciprocal relationships between people and interiors. This session will explore the methods which people used to articulate some of these meanings through their relationships with the interiors they owned, used or represented, concentrating on the visual and material cultures of Europe C.1300-C.1600. Mary Vaccaro University of Texas at Arlington Reconsidering Parmigianino's Camerino for Paola Gonzaga at Fontanellato In the period immediately before his departure for Rome in 1524, Francesco Mazzola, better known as il Parmigianino, painted a small room, the so-called Camerino, in the Rocca Sanvitale of Fontanellato, near Parma, a commission for which no documents are known to exist. The patron is traditionally identified as Count Galeazzo Sanvitale, whose portrait by the artist bears the date 15 24, yet the room is usually associated with Sanvitale's wife Paola Gonzaga. Scholars have widely speculated about the use of the Camerino with possibilities ranging from Gonzaga's stufetta to a ritual space commemorating her dead infant. The first hypothesis, which takes its cue from a depiction of the goddess Diana bathing in the room, disregards more serious aspects of the overall decoration, while the second, admittedly more sober hypothesis presumes that a baby died in 1 5 23, an assumption that subsequent literature has tended to accept as fact. This paper will present documentary evidence to refute the widely-held notion of a deceased newborn. Although not necessarily a record of familial tragedy, nor a carefree backdrop for a lady's bath, the frescoes in the Camerino pointedly thematize issues of gender and, in so doing, imply Paola Gonzaga's presence. The decorative scheme visualizes the myth of Diana and Acteon in the context of a trellised bower, thereby inviting organizational and iconographic comparison to Correggio's Camera di San Paolo, a private space intended for an abbess. Parmigianino transformed the prototype to create a strikingly original solution that also suggests a female spectator, in this case, a lay noblewoman. In the Camerino, the ancient legend is recast into an elegant and arcane story, with passages that bear no evident connection to a known textual source. Formal correspondences articulate and complicate a visual narrative about reversals of identity and fortune. This paper will consider Parmigianino's artistic invention in order to explore more fully the poetic and playful, as well as moralizing, dimensions of the fresco cycle, and their relation to Paola Gonzaga. Molly Bourne Syracuse University in Florence The Domestic Interior in Renaissance Mantua-. An Analysis of the Stivini Inventory of 1540-42 Following the death in 1540 of Mantua's first duke, Federico II Gonzaga, a comprehensive inventory of the ruling family's possessions was ordered for his son and successor. Named for the notary who drew up the 15 5-page manuscript between 1540 and 1542, the Stivini Inventory provides a detailed accounting of all Gonzaga properties and their moveable contents, with over 7,000 entries describing items ranging from country dove-cots to sumptuous furnishings and textiles in the Palazzo Ducale. While previous scholars have mined this valuable document only selectively for information on topics like Isabella d'Este's art collection, my investigation is the first to assess the Inventory as an organic whole, employing it as a tool to deepen our understanding of the appearance and arrangement of the Gonzaga interior. What can the Stivini Inventory tell us about what princely interiors in Mantua actually looked like, and how the Gonzaga furnished, decorated and used these spaces? My paper will give a brief overview of the Stivini Inventor)' as a critical source, followed by the initial results of my analysis. Topics of interest include the taxonomy of space; the employment of Gonzaga emblems on textiles, furnishings and other surfaces to denote ownership and family allegiances; the use of color in Gonzaga residences; and the gendering of space at the Gonzaga court. Andrea Galdy University of Manchester New Flesh on Old Bones: Cosimo I de' Medici, Vasari and the Making of a Palazzo Ducale in Sixteenth-Century Florence When duke Cosimo I de' Medici moved to the Palazzo della Signoria in 1540 the erstwhile seat of government of the Republic effectively became the Palazzo Ducale. This move and the resulting change of function necessitated many conversions both to the structure and the decoration of the palace to accommodate the Duke's growing family and also to convey certain messages from the ruler to his subjects. New state rooms in the east wing were constructed and the Salone dei Cinquecento was redecorated, mainly under supervision by Vasari, who was also responsible for turning round existing rooms in the original part of the palace according to the requirements of a Ducal apartment. He was also instrumental in setting up dedicated rooms which were to house and display particular groups of objects from the Ducal collection, such as the Scrittoio della Calliope and the Sala delle Carte Geografiche which latter rooms would eventually be complemented by the Sala delle Nicchie in the Palazzo Pitti across the Arno. The paper is going to explore how the interior of the Palazzo Ducale was gradually adapted to its new function and so became eventually a vehicle to express not only Medici propaganda in general but also the means to present a subtly different duke Cosimo to certain groups of visitors. As we will take a turn in the palace, we shall be able to see how carefully these messages were presented in accordance with the respective rooms' character gradually changing from public to private. Jacqueline Marie Musacchio Vassar College Antonio de'Medici and the Casino di San Marco: Identity and Interiors at the Florentine Court This paper will explore the contents and meaning of the Casino di San Marco in 1621, when it was inventoried as part of the estate of the recently deceased Antonio de'Medici, illegitimate son of Grand Duke Francesco I de'Medici and Bianca Cappello. Antonio grew up at the Medici court, where he witnessed the many contributions of his parents to the visual and performing arts that celebrated and decorated their reputations and their reigns. But his parents died in 1587, when he was only eleven years old. Although Francesco had named Antonio his heir, his uncle Ferdinando became the new Grand Duke and spread persistent rumors about Antonio's parentage. Ferdinando also destroyed many portraits of Bianca and purged her heraldry from official locations, thus visually eliminating Bianca herself and therefore Antonio's link to the throne. But Ferdinando also declared Antonio a Medici, and he provided the boy with property and privileges, mcluding the Casino at San Marco, where Antonio lived for all of his adult life. The 1621 inventory of the Casino shows Antonio as a man of taste and refinement, who used his home as a showpiece for his intellectual and artistic interests and, with its many family portraits and valuable objects, as a strong demonstration of his identity as a Medici. But Antonio's precarious position in the Medici court required him to negotiate these demonstrations of identity with great care. I believe he used the model of his mother's rooms in the Palazzo Pitti as his example; Bianca was never popular among her Florentine subjects, but her carefully decorated and much celebrated rooms were a way to redeem and improve her reputation. After being denied the Ducal throne and dismissed as a "figlio supposto," Antonio too needed positive ways to express his identity, and the Casino was the only place he could do that. A detailed assessment of the objects in the Casino, and their arrangements, will enable us to further our understanding of this often-forgotten Medici. Claudia Goldstein William Paterson University Luxury, Greed, and Sentimentality: Multivalent Household Goods in Early Modern Antwerp Household goods in early modem .Antwerp articulated a range of meanings depending on the circumstances of their reception. In this paper, I will examine the case of Michiel van der Heyden (d. 1549), a city alderman who came under investigation for building and decorating his elaborate country house with misappropriated city funds. For those who sought to prosecute van der Heyden, his richly appointed country house—decorated with numerous paintings. mduding a signed double portrait by Quentin Metsys—embodied the worst of his personality traits: greedy, ostentatious, arrogant. For van der Heyden's wife, who struggled to maintain the family home after his death, the same goods personified the family and possessed a sentimental value greater than their monetary worth. For van der Heyden himself, and for modem scholars, the house and its goods embodied the cultivated persona of an early modem humanist writ large. In this paper, I will use the van der Heyden case to show how early modern domestic goods made multiple meanings for those that bought, used, and lived with them, as well as for those who knew them only by reputation. Jonathan Foyle Historic Royal Palaces The Conception and Experience of Thomas Wolsey's State Apartments at Hampton Court Palace, c.1515-30 Hampton Court Palace represents the finest series of Tudor palatial interiors in England. It was built for Thomas Wolsey from 1515-21, and though altered to suit Henry VIII's occupation after 1528, enough survives to reconstruct the principal interior spaces of Wolsey's hall, waiting chamber and presence chamber. All three rooms were used simultaneously for dining and entertaining. Here, a combination of archaeology, documentary research, contemporary description and spatial analysis explains their political function and experiential quality as an Anglicised version of the three aule of Roman cardinalate palaces. James Lindow Victoria & Albert Museum/Royal College of Art Theorising on the Domestic Interior in Fifteenth-Century Florence: Magnificence and Splendour This paper provides a reassessment of the theory of magnificence in light of the related social virtue of splendour. It aims to highlight how magnificence, when applied to private palaces, extended beyond merely the exterior to include the interior as spaces where virtuous expenditure could and should be displayed. The quattrocento texts to be discussed in this paper chart the development of a complex theory that sought to provide a rationalisation for expenditure on a grand scale. In the fifteenth century the significant connection between the virtue of wealth and its logical reflection in the art of building became firmly established. As the range of texts selected for discussion illustrate, there was a continual need throughout the period not merely discuss wealth and building, but also explain and justify their positive uses. The debate was theorised in courtly and republican cities alike and this underlines the geographical currency of the concept of magnificence in the major city-states of Renaissance Italy. While the emphasis of these texts varied depending on its purpose, location, author or intended audience, the classical and theological sources that the Renaissance theorists used as authority reappear with remarkable consistency. When Giovanni Pontano at the end of the fifteenth century singled out magnificence and splendour as distinct virtues appropriate to building and furnishing respectively, he was in fact reflecting an established tradition that had its origins in specific classical texts but was further formulated and developed during the fifteenth century. From Aristotle and Cicero to Leonardo Bruni and Paolo Cortesi the interior and its domestic furnishings were frequently understood as being integral attributes of magnificent expenditure. An area overlooked in traditional modern studies, this paper expands the theory of magnificence into the fifteenth century interior and suggests the importance of domestic spaces as areas for appropriate virtuous display. Marta Ajmar Victoria & Albert Museum/Royal College of Art Open House? Objects, Leisure and Domesticity in Sixteenth Century Italy When discussing hospitability and the role of the lady of the house, a conduct book of the later sixteenth century advises the new bride to take her guests by the fire, or the window, or the garden, according to the seasons, and times, and guide them around the house, and in particular show them some of your possessions, either new, or beautiful, but in such a way that it will be received as a sign of your politeness and domesticity, and not arrogance: something that you do as i f showing them your heart. Surviving artefacts such as decorative textiles, tableware and books of games confirm this image of the sixteenth-century elite house as a space designed for sociability, and so do household management manuals and contemporary inventories. And yet, only recently scholarship has started to question the traditional picture of the Renaissance house as a secluded space, with new evidence currently in the process of being brought forward to suggest a more permeable household, one in which men and women shared spaces, objects, occupations and concerns. In this paper I will mobilize material, literary and documentary-sources to support the idea that the new representational (and financial) value embodied by the Renaissance house and its contents went hand in hand with new patterns of sociability, where domesticity and polite (or impolite) entertainment often merged, and where women were demanded to play new roles, from arbiters of domestic taste to sociable hostesses. Se Silvia Evangelisti University of Birmingham Articulations of Religious Discipline: Interiors in Early Modern Italian Convents Since the early times of monasticism, religious life was associated with a series of obligations, including the giving up of material possessions and property rights in favour of a religious - and voluntary ­poverty. Nuns and monks had to abandon all the signs of their previous worldly existence, instead relying exclusively on the communal monastic patrimony and sharing everything: food, clothes, furniture, prayer books and other material objects found inside monasteries. Specific rules and prescriptions were drawn up to ensure this religious ideal was put into practice. My paper focuses on the prescriptive literature addressed to nuns in early modern Italy, and the way it understood and represented female monastic interiors. Usually compiled by influential ecclesiastical men, these texts provided extremely detailed advice to nuns on the way in which they were to decorate, use, and inhabit the convent internal space in order to make it the perfect and closed space of the Brides of Christ. I suggest that this almost obsessive attention was aimed not only at reproducing the model of early monasticism, but also at using the control of convent interiors to regulate power and interpersonal relationships amongst nuns, guarantee their chastity, and tiltimately keep them in religious life. Leah Knight Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario Domesticating Plants and Books in Later Sixteenth-Century England This paper will show that the culture of collecting, and specifically collections of plants and of books, made new demands on the organization of space in the domestic interior of late sixteenth-century England. In humanist architectural theory and practice, the recreational garden, a primary site for collection, was structurally integral to the house. This new land of horticultural space overlapped with traditional physic and culinary gardens, whose vegetable contents - both decorative (boughs and nosegays) and utilitarian (medicines and foods) — had long held a prominent place within the house, from strewing-herbs and rushes on floors and walls to still-rooms for processing vegetable material. Also prominent as household property, increasingly so, were the newly affordable, plentiful, and popular printed books ­including physic herbals and gardening manuals — which presented themselves (through tides and prefatory material) spatially as gatherings of plants, as gardens and garlands and groves. The botanical metaphors in these books helped to define a space for them in the domestic interior by ahuding to the profit and delight, the necessity and sensuous luxury, of keeping such books in the home as collections of plants were already kept both in the garden and within the house itself. Claire Lamont University of Newcastle Old Capulet's House: The Domestic Interior in Romeo and Juliet This paper investigates the way in which the domestic interior is represented in Romeo and Juliet (1597), with reference to scenes which invite comparison in other Italian plays by Shakespeare. Since the Elizabethan theatre had no scenery the plays do not give much idea of the interior decoration of a house, but plays with domestic settings often shed light on use, including such issues as ownership of space, public and private, and the relation between the inside and outside of the house with particular reference to doors and windows. In the case of Romeo and Juliet we have a hall in use on a festive occasion, and the private chamber of Juliet, including the celebrated 'balcony scene'. The paper argues that the play represents an interior recognisable to its audience, and that it relies on such recognition for its effect. It suggests also some visual themes in the presentation of the domestic which Shakespeare seems to associate particularly with Italy. Ann Matchette University of Sussex/AHRB Centre for the Study of the Domestic Interior Reconstructing Meanings: Disposal of Domestic Objects in Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Florence This paper explores how interiors were 'de­articulated' through the disposal, temporary removal, or omission of domestic objects. Scholars of the early modem period have increasingly stressed the importance of domestic interiors as a material manifestation of family memory. They were the result of an accretive process, since homes were inhabited and adapted by successive generations who retained heirlooms and carefully incorporated new furnishings. However, this model does not take into sufficient account that domestic spaces were also disassembled. By drawing on archival sources, such as 'ricordanze', pawning records, and documents of estate sales and auctions run by the Magistrato dei Pupilli, I investigate the range of circumstances that moved people to give up their belongings. Such an approach offers an alternative way to unravel the complex meanings people attached to the objects that made up their domestic interiors. Even in his famous treatise on the family, Leon Battista Alberti counselled that if a wife finds that 'some object is of no use to the household, let her put it aside to sell, and always be more pleased to sell than to buy'. Rather than viewing the disposal of objects as symptomatic of a declining family economy, I argue that people in a variety of socio-economic situations relinquished household goods. This paper further examines the mechanisms and benefits of divestment. A thriving market for second-hand goods offered the owners of domestic objects a certain amount of flexibility and security, and ultimately facilitated the flow of furnishings from one interior to another. Catherine Richardson Shakespeare Institute, University of Birmingham Distinguished Rooms: Status and the Experience of the Domestic Interior This paper aims to explore the use of urban houses in the town of Canterbury in the 1570s. It does so by examining the linkages between different kinds of records relating to the same spaces: inventory material and wills to describe rooms and the significance of objects, and ecclesiastical court depositions which describe individuals' activities within those rooms. The case on which this paper primarily focuses traces the movement of an alderman of the town and his family from his own house to that of his poor neighbour to help the latter prepare himself for death. Space is very carefully located in the depositions, as it is in the inventories, but in addition movements are highly moralised. The intention of the paper is two-fold. Firstly to examine the extent to which contemporary experience of early modem domestic space (what it was like to walk between the different rooms in the house) is recoverable through the relationship between different kinds of document; and secondly to investigate the significance of the dynamic between aesthetic design of the interior and pragmatic articulation of the different functions of each room (why walk from one room to another?). Maurice Howard University of Sussex Public Spaces, Domestic Interiors: England 1500-1650 The very words we might choose, as in the above tide, to express and define the internal spaces of homes on the one hand and communal buildings (churches, town halls, schools, shops) on the other is part of the effort to differentiate personal or family spaces from multi-peopled ones. What evidence is there from contemporary English inventories that these different kinds of internal spaces were decorated and furnished with usage in mind and different predictions of wear and tear? Much of the focus of work on inventories has been on the riches of domestic evidence but the wider picture can enrich our knowledge of the working life of decoration, fittings and moveable goods in many different environments. Session 7: 'Dislocution': Expressing Displacement in Visual Culture Christine Boyanoski Birkbeck College 'Dislocution' is a term, coined by James Joyce and adopted by cultural critic and curator Sarat Maharaj, that describes the double disruption of place and speech that is a condition of the displaced, or those in exile. These groups, including exiles, refugees, immigrants and expatriates, must find alternatives to their native forms of expression which no longer serve them in new and different cultures. The analogy of speech is useful — particularly the concept of cultural translation - for exploring the interconnections that are made upon the meeting of cultures, the transposition of cultural values, and the new hybrid forms of artistic expression that arise. In his 1984 essay 'Reflections of Exile' Edward Said opposed exile to nationalism - 'opposites informing and constituting each other'. Those dislocated from their place of origin must negotiate the tension between loss and invention, absence and the need to inscribe their presence on another culture. This has wider implications, for the dominant culture is itself involved in the process - even altered by it ­and the assumption that national cultures represent an 'isomorphism of space, place and culture' is challenged. The history of nations, like Great Britain, demonstrates that a plurality of cultures has contributed and still contributes to their making. This strand will explore the different types of displacement and the forms of artistic expression to which the experience of 'dislocution' has given rise across time and in a variety of media. Anna Green Norwich School of Art and Design Muting the Spectacle: Italian Child Street Musicians in Nineteenth-Century Paris My paper addresses the 'dislocution' of Italian child musicians in nineteenth-century Paris. It focusses on Frederic Bazille's painting, Petite Italienne: chanteuse des rues, 1866, in the context of related imagery, painted and printed. It proposes that these little - frequently illegal — immigrants were dislocuted in a number of ways. By the end of the century French legislation on street entertainment, child labour, and immigration had gradually but inexorably silenced their musical activities. The Franco-Prussian War had also played a vast part in dispersing them once more. At the same time their musical voice was also silenced by another medium: painting. For they were subjected to an othering gaze by French painters eager to capitalize on the affective visual spectacle they offered - particularly i f they were girls. In turn (yet another substitution of one medium by another) the satirical press often played upon exactly this disjunction between actual intolerance of the petits Italiens but their picturesque commodification by painters and viewers nonetheless. The dislocution of these subjects is also pursued at a number of other levels. Fintan Cullen University of Nottingham Ireland in Court In the nineteenth century Irish talent was exported to London - the metropolis of empire. Irish politicians were obliged to attend Westminster, but the city also attracted Irish writers, artists, journalists and those seeking advancement in a wide range of human endeavour. While the high-focus, self-promotion of figures such as Oscar Wilde and WB Yeats is well-known, this paper will explore a wider range of Irish visitors to London and will attempt to examine the relationship between the visual and dislocution. In particular, the paper will consider the representation of Irish witnesses at the hearings of the Special Commission on Parnellism and Crime as they appeared over many months in The Graphic in 1889. Sketched by Sydney Prior Hall, The Graphic carried pencil drawings of Charles Stewart Parnell and other prominent political figures, but it also illustrated its accounts of the court proceedings with a large array of portraits of 'ordinary' Irishmen and women brought to London to destroy Parnellism. By examining these drawings of a transported rural Irish tenantry standing in the witness box in the Royal Courts of Justice on the Strand, the aim of this presentation is to explore cultural displacement and disruption. Diane Miliotes Hood Museum of Art, Dartmouth College Boundaries. Dislocations, Negotiations: Jose Clemente Orozco in the United States This paper aims to explore the artistic, personal, and political implications of the emigration of Mexican muralist Jose Clemente Orozco to the United States from 1927 to 1934 in search of international recognition as a public painter. Orozco's encounter with a foreign culture and the modern North American metropolis during an historical juncture of great ferment, and later equally great turmoil, permanently transformed the content and form of his art, broadened its networks of circulation, and indeed allowed him to return to his homeland in 1934 with a greatly enhanced reputation. Despite US interest in "the Mexican" during this time, Orozco's choice to emigrate in the late 1920s was fraught with the risk of potential failure, as had been the case with his first attempt in 1917, but it also held the promise of unknown rewards. Yet any border crossing or pushing of boundaries, whether literal or metaphorical, and the encounter with the expectations and presumptions of the other, carries with it the possibility of conflict, ambiguity, disappointment, misunderstanding, and a forced reflection upon one's own identity and assumptions. The risktaking, negotiation, and compromise involved in this enterprise will be examined vis-a-vis Orozco's artistic production, actions, and writings, and will provide an opportunity to reflect upon issues concerning cultural dislocation in the context of Depression-era North America. Deborah Schultz University of Sussex Suppression and Amplification of Speech in Works by Artists Displaced during the Nazi Period This paper investigates creative responses to critical experiences during the Nazi period in the work of three displaced artists - Felix Nussbaum, Charlone Salomon and .Arnold Daghani. In defiance of Lessing's influential distinction between the nebeneinander of pictorial representation and the nacheinander of poetic narrative, the selected artists felt compelled to produce hybrid forms of representation. As a direct correlation to the presence of words in these artists' use of pictorial narrative, some works are characterised by a resounding silence. This absence is most striking in Nussbaum's works in which figures cover their mouths, suppressing their speech in response to the horror they have witnessed or experienced (what cannot be said aloud in public). Elsewhere figures whisper, point to their Session 7: 'Dislocution': Expressing Displacement in Visual Culture mouths and cup their ears. In other works sound is visually amplified by figures shouting or using megaphones. Sound is present in the silence of the paintings, used visually to evoke a sense of alarm and disrupted communication. At critical junctures in her sequence Life? Or Theatre? Salomon portrays herself with her hands covering her mouth. In one of the few entirely silent images in the sequence, when she is unable to speak, the words written around her tell of her anxiety. Salomon's lapses into silence are all the more resonant as a contrast to the wordiness of her predominant style. With Daghani, the murdered inmates of Mikhailowka reappear spectrally in light ink washes as a constant presence. They communicate through a silent language. Hieroglyphic shapes are 'written' across the image which are unintelligible both to Daghani and the viewer. Naomi Skelton Connaught Brown Gallery Performing Exile: Some Reflections on the Work of Ruth Francken and Ana Mendieta Ruth Francken, forced to flee Nazi Europe as a Jew in 1941, and Ana Mendieta, sent to the United States from Cuba in 1961, have both incorporated their experience of exile and of beeing an exile into their art. After the horrific Holocaust imagery of her Tetes Paintings and sculptures of 1965-65 (works made potentially as an unconscious cathartic reaction to her (re)new(ed) awareness of her Jewish identity at this time) Ruth evolved during the 1970s the concept of 'Anti-castration' in order to express the bivalent nature of her experiences as an exile. By winding rope cord around scissors in her visual work, she symbolized, on one level, her protest against the violence of what she calls her 'deracinement'(uprooting) as a childand, on another level, her homage to the 'cutting' tool of her liberation. She considers herself privileged to be an exile. Ana Mendieta's 'earthworks' of the mid­19705, with their shifting physicality in the US soil, commented on the futility of the concept of territory, of a fixed country or nation. These works theoretically disrupted the traditional binary of nation-exile and questioned the limits and fixity of (national) identity. Mendieta made exile her home, rooting herself in the earth rather than in the 'country' whilst existing, like Francken, in the liminal space between nations and races: both artists assumed the role of physical embodiments of the Derridean 'parergon' and of Lyotard's "unconscious affect". Indeed, they were creatively inspired by their exile ­by the marginalization and the liberation it permitted them. Of much more significance, however, is the empowerment they felt through their subversion, as exiles, of national and ideological consciousness. On recognition of this disruptive power they began to performatively produce themselves as exiles in their work and in their lives. As female exiled artists, this power extended into their subvesrion of patriarchal domination. The negative implications and effects of displacement on humankind contrasted with the evolution of Francken's and Mendieta's comprehension and warm acceptance of their shifting identities as exiles is summarised perfectly by the following quote by Peter Handke: "Deraciner les autres est un crime, se deraciner soi-meme est une victoire" (To uproot others is a crime, to uproot oneself is a victory). Roisin Kennedy University College Dublin Made in England: The Critical Reception of Louis le Brocquy's painting, A Family Louis le Brocquy's painting, 'A Family' (1951) was part of a series of works made by the Irish artist after his move to London from Dublin at the end of the war. It was exhibited to some acclaim by British critics who could relate its subject matter to post-war experiences of austerity and isolation. The painting was shown in Dublin in late 1951 where it received mixed reviews. When it was offered to the Municipal Gallery of Modern Art by a group of admirers who recognised it as a major work of art by an Irish artist, it was rejected. 'A Family' became symptomatic of the struggles within the Irish art world of the 1950s which was split between those committed to the creation of a distinctive Irish style of art, and the pull of international modernism. Subsequendy le Brocquy was selected to represent Ireland at the Venice Biennale of 1956 when 'A Family' won a major prize and was bought by the Nestle Corporation. In the past couple of years an Irish collector has acquired the work and presented it to the National Gallery of Ireland. The paper will examine the difficulties facing the modern Irish artist seeking to engage with a more dominant visual culture, in this case, modernism. It will address the stratified response to the work in Ireland where its depiction of a disfuncrional family was at odds with the official sanctity of family life. The subject was a potent one in terms of recent developments in Ireland. In 19 3 7 the Irish Constitution had placed the family at the centre of Irish society. In 1951, in a major public controversy, the Cathohc Church intervened in the State's plan to introduce free medical care for mothers and new bom infants. Le Brocquy's painting moved from a context in which references to the dislocation of the individual were understood and even admired to one in which the underlying meanings of the work could be construed as subversive, or inappropriate. Le Brocquy's referencing of modernist paintings with 'A Family', while central to his development as an artist within a British context, went largely unnoticed in Ireland. At another level it was perfecdy acceptable to exhibit the painting as representative of Irish art at the Venice Biennale, where le Brocquy's familiarity with modernism could be displayed to a foreign audience. Ireland's modernity was central to its image abroad, and hence to its economic survival. The debate surrounding le Brocquy's painting in the 1950s is indicative of the ways in which the meanings of works of art change when moved from one cultural milieu to another. It is this cultural milieu rather than the artist's nationality which is the key factor in attributing meaning to the artwork. Dorothy Rowe Froebel College, University of Surrey Cultural Crossings: Locational Identity in Recent Black and Asian British Art Homi Bhabha has observed that the use of 'metaphor...transfers the meaning of home and belonging, across the 'middle passage', or the central European steppes, across those distances and cultural differences that span the imagined community of the nation-people', (Bhabha 'DissemiNation' in Bhabha (ed.) 1990, p.291). Although referring to the perspective of the western migrant in exile, Bhabha's observations also have resonances for its reverse, for the eastern migrant in western exile. He observes that 'the nation fills the void left in the uprooting of communities and kin and turns that loss into the language of metaphor.' The idea of an imagined homeland becomes a rich source of metaphoric yearning and is played out in a number of recent artworks by artists of black and Asian origin working in Britain, works that I shall explore in this paper. The experience of 'dislocution' becomes a familiar trope of diasporic visual culture in Britain and is negotiated in different ways by a variety of individual artists according to inflections of race, class, sexuality, gender, generation and able bodiedness. Works to be considered may include Meera Chauda's 1995 public mural sited in Newham, East London, tellingly entided 'Where is Home?', Hew Locke's sprawling fabrication, 'Hemmed in Two' (2000) and experiments in cultural identity by Keith Khan and Ah Zaidi via their performance group, Moti Roti. A key point of exploration in the paper will be concerned with a critique of the notion of difference as only a position of the oppressed, a definition (formulated by David Sibley amongst others) which leaves very litde space for a consideration of alterity as the enabling position it can be. It is, I would like to argue, precisely in the creative work of many black and Asian British artists operating within the spaces of the contemporary city that an energising perspective on 'difference' and 'dislocution' can be found. Session 8: Histories of the Eye Maria H. Loh Department of Fine Art, University of Toronto In the classical paragone of the senses, vision was given prominence over hearing, touch, smell, and taste for it was the most efficacious of the five. In one glance of the eye, the spectator could grasp what it took the poet several lines to relate. For this reason, writers championed painting over poetry as a more effective means of communication and persuasion. However, although beauty was in the eye of the beholder and although the power of this beauty often reverberated throughout the body, it was in the beholder's mind and ultimately through his/her works and/or words that the aesthetic experience was recorded. This session considers the connection between the eye, the body, and the mind and the way this experience is articulated by artists and in histories of art. Is beauty truly in the eye of the beholder? Is seeing really believing? Does blindness play into vision? How is the power of the eye articulated in both the making and writing of art? Andre Dombrowski University of California, Berkeley Department of History of Art Pessimism and the Evolution of the Senses in Burne-Jones's 'Laus Veneris' My paper seeks to explore the prominent British mid-nineteenth-century fear, voiced by many evolutionists and optical scientists like Herbert Spencer and James Sully, that the evolution of the senses and of vision, which seemed to have so clearly accelerated in the modern age in an ever more refined relation between stimulation and experience, would not be infinitely possible. Instead, as these writers believed, either the senses would fall behind modernity's endless capacities to produce quicker and more complex stimulations, and would therefore never be able to fully realize their potential, or the senses would outgrow their intake, be endlessly bored and thus deteriorate. Such pessimistic fears, versed in a Schopenhauerian take on life, came to the fore most prominently when James Sully published a book called Pessimism. A History and a Criticism in 1877. My paper will explore the influence of this book and the body of scientific thought it exemplified on one of the most important paintings of the Aesthetic Movement, Bume­Jones's Laus Veneris, shown at the Grosvenor Gallery in 1878. This connection, which many art critics remarked on at the time, has so far escaped recent scholarship on the painting, although the painting shows Venus, bored and blase, knowing that the music about to sound will not excite her over-refined sensory apparatus. She was, for the critics, the Victorian emblem of pessimism, melancholia and failed sensory experience. Bume-Jones created an image which, in its surface texture, was instead meant to endlessly fascinate and stimulate. Through glaring colors, stenciling in paint and an emphasis on the surface to the brink of over­stimulation, it made an overt stimulation of the senses into an avant-garde artistic practice. 'Laus Veneris' and the neurological and optical writings in which it is steeped bring to the fore an important and defining moment in the history of vision and the senses in which their ethical and existential possibilities and limitations were being put to the test. Alastair Wright Princeton University Trouble Retiniem Fauvism and the Schizophrenic Eye "That which [he] restitutes to us of the Sun," Maurice Denis wrote of Matisse in 1906, "is the retinal trouble, the optical trembling, the painful sensation of dazzling, the vertigo that a white wall or esplanade causes at high noon in the summer. [His] aesthetic permits that [he] attempts to blind us." This response suggests the need to think fauvism in terms other than the unmediated transcription of optical experience that Matisse's painting of 1905/1906 has generally been taken to embody. For Denis, if fauvism had to do with vision, it was a problematic vision, vertiginous, blinding, painful. I will argue that Denis's "retinal trouble" arose from the disjunctive visual processes that mark Matisse's canvases. Works such as Femme au chapeau mobilize in always incomplete and contradictory ways the styles of Matisse's predecessors, cleaving pictorial signifier — color, expressive brushwork, and form — from any stable signified. Fauvism's mobile referential circuits undermine both the mimetic project and also the hermeneutics of expression, particularly as it operated in postimpressionism, an aspect that explains the oft-noted intensity of the canvases. With the process of signification interrupted, the materiality of the signifier itself becomes more insistently visible, leading to a concentration on the surface itself. What disturbed the critics in Matisse's work was the senseless violence ­and I mean this literally: violence that is without sense, without signification. This aspect was frequently labeled by the critics as madness, and much of the paper is devoted to excavating the historically-specific meanings embedded in this apparently throwaway term. I argue that the simultaneous affectlessness and intensity of fauvism resonated with reconfigured notions of perception and cognition emerging from the work of early twentieth-century psychologists such as Pierre Janet and Alfred Binet. The anxiety surrounding Matisse's painting had much to do with the critics' sense that the real wildness of fauvism lay in its ability to pull the viewer into an experience of looking akin to madness - an effect that could be experienced either as privation (as the critics undoubtedly did) or as something to be celebrated, accompanied as it often is by a sense of euphoria, of intensity (art-historical accounts have tended to take the latter tack, domesticating fauvism's wildness by channelling its disturbing dissociation of signification into the realm of aesthetics). Offering to the eye a fragmentary series of signifiers, fauvism ruptures the sensory and hermeneutic continuity of the viewing experience, pushing firmly into view the disarticulating operation of perception. The look - in particular the look associated with pleasure, opening the subject onto the sensual plenitude of the visible world ­dismantles its bearer; the eye becomes the site not of mastery, not of a sovereign subject surveying its surroundings, but rather of a disintegration without end. Juliet Koss Scripps College, USA/Humboldt Fellow, Berlin "Empathy Resurgent" After almost a century of neglect and denigration, empathy - the word, the emotion, and specifically the late nineteenth-century German aesthetic concept - has recently begun to appear widely in contemporary cultural discourse. A kinder, gentler aesthetic response ­kinder than stringent abstraction, dizzying distraction, or harsh estrangement - it has been applied to an unlikely range of objects, including Frank Gehry's Session 8: Histories of the Eye architecture and the entire Surrealist project. "Empathy Resurgent" examines the concept as a perceptual model of haptic vision and provisional solution to the eye/body problem, exploring its recent surge in popularity for insight into contemporary culture and the particular currency of German aesthetic thought. Empathy, or Einfiihlung (literally, the activity of "feeling into"), emerged as a description of the viewers active, embodied experience of space in 1873, and was subsequently developed in philosophy, perceptual psychology, optics, and visual and architectural theory. As a description of vision embedded in the body, it proved particularly well suited to discussions of spatial perception. According to Heinrich Wolfflin and others, it could assist in the interpretation of works of art and architecture. Empathy integrated visual experience and bodily sensation, embedding the viewer's eye firmly within his body. With the emergence of the modem mass audience, however, and of the newly developed objects to which it attended - in particular the cinema, which absorbed the attention of masses of young women - ideas of spectatorship and modem subjectivity-demanded constant reconfiguration. For almost the entire course of the twentieth century, it has been argued, empathy remained suppressed at the heart of the discourse of modern spectatorship, providing a useful foil for such authors as Wilhelm Worringer, who opposed it to abstraction, and Bertolt Brecht, who made it the passive and bourgeois countermodel for the technique of estrangement (Verfremdung). Recoded in the 1920s as passive, feminine, and the ultimate facilitator of consumption, empathy formed an ambiguous foil to the notion of distraction (Zerstreuung). Recent evocations of empathy return uncannily - if often unconsciously ­to its late nineteenth-century roots, using the concept to describe vision itself as a potentially uncomfortable destabilisation of identity along the viewer's perceptual borders, a sensation at once physical, psychological and emotional. Sarah Monks Courtauld Institute of Art. London Distant Horizons: The Spectacle of Empire at Vauxhall Gardens, circa 1740 Focusing on the four large marine paintings by Peter Monamy which appeared at this popular London evening resort, the proposed paper analyses the modes of gazing and viewing figured by these works and the Gardens as a whole. In particular, their highly public thematic and representational emphases upon the articulation of distant horizons and the capture' of expansive (colonial) space is discussed within the allied contexts of the contemporary fascination with the telescope and long-range optics, and political debates over Britain's pursuit of imperial expansion. These debates played a significant role in shaping popular interpretations of national and imperial identity in the eighteenth century and it is the conclusion of this paper that Monamy's images, their spatial context and the forms of looking which they encouraged and represented suggest the radical political dynamic of this key cultural site. Jeremy Roe Leeds University Velazquez's Sevillian Spectators: An Examination of the Cultural Significance of Representations of Vision in Velazquez's Early Religious Paintings Velazquez's Sevillian paintings demonstrate his concern not only to attract the spectator's eye with their impressive rendering of people and objects but also a concern to guide the spectator's experience of looking at paintings and the subsequent contemplation of their significance. The aim of this paper is to explore these aspects of the paintings through an examination of Velazquez's representation of spectators and the act of looking in his religious paintings. However, these representations of vision signal ideological and intellectual concerns that framed both the painting and viewing of the works, and these areas are explored in conjunction with analysis of the paintings. A framework for discussion of the conceptual and ideological significance of vision is provided by analysis of the rhetorical concept of perspicuity, as discussed by the Sevillian scholar and poet Francisco de Rioja. Having considered the application of the concept of perspicuity in Tridentine treatises on painting a more complex cultural significance of this term is explored through an examination of the discussion of vision in Fray Luis de Granada's Manual de oraciones y espirituales ejercicios and an unpublished treatise by the scholar Pedro de Valencia. On the basis of this analysis and drawing on the writing of Michael Baxandall, Victor Stoichita and Gridley Mckim-Smith this paper undertakes a searching examination of Velazquez's religious paintings in terms of their composition and concepts of vision discussed by the spectators' whose eyes and minds his paintings sought to engage. Karen Butler Columbia University Jean Fautrier, Phenomenology, and French Art Criticism in the 1940s Parallel with the rise of Clement Greenberg's theory of disembodied modernist opticality, which has dominated much of postwar American art historical thought, an alternative model of visuality emerged in the writings of a group of art critics in France during the 1940s. Their approach drew from phenomenology's claim that the formation of subjectivity was inseparable from the role of sensory experience and the body's relation to objects in perception. Maurice Merleau­Ponty's essay "Cezanne's Doubt," perhaps the most famous application of phenomenology to the work of a visual artist, is not a singular example, but, I believe, exemplary of a deeper strain of French art criticism at this time. I examine how the phenomenological model of perception plays out in the writings of two writers, Jean Paulhan and Francis Ponge, on the work of the artist Jean Fautrier in the 1940s. His visceral technique and emphasis on material processes, aspects that are often ignored by art historians, were, they argued, particularly susceptible to phenomenological description. For these critics, Fautrier's work, with its thick, material pigment, overlaid sheets of paper on canvas, and figures and objects hovering on the edge of visibility, actively demonstrates how the embodied subject's perception of the world rises to consciousness. These writers articulate a model of embodied subjectivity that, in its transformation of the spectator through aesthetic experiments that challenge existing ways of seeing, offers a useful counter to current art historical orthodoxies. Johanna Fassl Columbia University Interior Vision: Giambattista Tiepolo's Etchings Seen through the Eye of Ingenium Looking and observing plays a central role in the etchings of Giambattista Tiepolo (1696-1770); due to the non-conclusiveness of these images, however, the act of seeing functions as a stimulus for the viewer to activate his own interior vision in order to produce meaning. The first series, the Capricci was initially published in 1743 and introduced Tiepolo's graphic genius; subsequently the Scherzi di Fantasia, enjoying circulation only after Tiepolo's death, secured him a reputation as one of the medium's most imaginative and accomplished practitioners. The etchings have always puzzled scholars, as it is impossible to assign clear subject matter or decipher a straightforward meaning. In these prints magus type figures, often accompanied by a young boy and surrounded by a chorus of spectators, seem to be intensely pointing at and observing various sorts of events. But upon closer look it becomes clear that Tiepolo only feigns a narrative situation, for the images are entirely non-conclusive, and our search for meaning is thwarted. The main protagonists are either looking at a blank spot in the image, or their gazes are directed entirely outside the pictorial realm. Their pictorial companions add further confusion. They too either support the lure of narrative, their eyes following the lead of the main actors, or they are looking into the opposite direction where, again, there is nothing to be seen. This paper addresses this programmed incomprehension in Tiepolo's prints as an instance of critique of enlightenment thought and rationalism. The central recurring figure in these images is the mago, alluding to the meaning of wisdom. The nonconclusivess of the image thus signifies the limit of rational wisdom, that the world cannot only be understood strictly in terms of reason. The deliberate irritation that these images cause in us, however, carries a highly productive dimension. The inclusions of breaks in the argumentative chain invite the viewer to fill in the blanks and to produce his own meaning; as there is no face value, we need to activate our imagination and search within ourselves. In eighteenth-century terms the inventive capacity of the imagination was understood as an act of ingenium. In Giambattista Vico's New Science (1744), which he wrote in opposition to Cartesian rationalism, creative ingenium is understood as a synthetic process in which we do not just discover the truth, but make it. Imagination is the eye of ingenium as judgement is the eye of the intellect. In this manner Vico criticizes the totalizing tendencies of system inherent in Descartes's thought, and proposes that the ego is continuously re-constituting itself through the imaginative act. Tiepolo was an immediate contemporary of Vico, and I am suggesting that his etchings participate not only the critique of Cartesian enlightenment, but are part of a larger epistemological shift in artistic production that anticipates modern age. Essentially, these images carry a futuristic element, foreshadowing the dream production of Goya, Magritte and the Surrealists. Session 9: Medium Matters Today Mark Godfrey Slade School of Fine Art, UCL) Christopher Kul-Want Byam Shaw School of Art Recently certain writers such as Rosalind Krauss have urged a return to a discussion around the medium. In the light of this discussion, this session will question what the medium has meant for twentieth century artists and what it might mean today. Do some artists and critics use the term 'medium' where others use genre, apparatus, or conditions/conventions associated with the medium? Are the implicit political arguments for the return to the (reinvented) medium valuable? How does digitalisation affect the discussion? Is the return to the discussion of the medium a symptom of an anxiety around installation art and, more generally, a post-medium age? How can expanded kinds of reflexivity in art be thought about? David Lomas University of Manchester Surrealist Automatism and Medium Specificity My paper relates to the issue of medium specificity as this was raised in discussions about surrealist automatism. After Andre Breton's Manifesto had made it the cornerstone of a surrealist aesthetic, the question of whether the practice of automatic WTiting could be translated into a visual realm was much debated. One of the key texts that discusses this issue is underpinned by a similar distinction to that which Lessing had drawn between verbal and visual signs, the former being disposed sequentially in time and the latter spatially and simultaneously. My paper will focus on the solutions found by Miro and Masson to what was perceived as an inherent limitation of visual media in this regard. George Baker Purchase College, State University of New York The Anti-Images of Robert Whitman Known for his path-breaking work with projected images and film, Robert Whitman belongs to the generation of New York School artists who have long been heralded for dismantling both modernism and medium-specific modes of artistic practice. Tracing the trajectory of Whitman's work from its origins in the Happenings to the moment of the 1970s, this paper poses the first reading of a monumental series of "drawings" (1974-7 7) that Whitman produced illustrating Dante's Paradiso, a series known by critics to exist but not exhibited until this year. Whitman's 'Dante Drawings' were produced as two-sided works on paper whose visual appearance changes upon being irradiated from behind by light. Colliding an exploration of drawing with certain material possibilities characteristic of the medium of film (i.e., the transparency of celluloid), the Dante Drawings throw into relief Whitman's longer concern with combining mediums — film and sculpture, film and theater, film and drawing. Once annexed to former narratives celebrating "intermedia," "mixed media," or "expanded cinema," Whitman's work actually combines mediums in a way that does not in fact betray their specificity. Rather, a form of specificity arises that can only exist between two mediums, that takes as its specificity the articulation of the incommensurable gap between two vasdy different but inter-related forms. Allegorized in the choice of the Paradiso as a subject. Whitman's 'Dante Drawings' provide a model for what we might call the "communication" or the "sharing of form," an operation that potentially bypasses the stalemate between modernist and postmodernist attitudes toward the medium. Tamara Trodd University College London Maps, Mapping and the Medium in Work from the 1970s I propose to explore the mutual intimacy of the terms 'medium' and 'matter' across the ground of work from the late 1960s and early 1970s. This is the historical moment which has been seen as marking the end of any critical usefulness of the idea of the medium; and its re-examination is therefore crucial for an understanding of current renewed attempts to theorize medium-type structures. Focusing on this moment enables access to the question, what kind of work is it that binds a set of materials into the structure that is called a medium? I argue that in the visual arts, a 'medium' is the product of a particular steeping or imbuing of a set of materials, over time, with structures of consciousness or mind. I explore the figure of the map in work by Robert Smithson, Douglas Huebler, and others, and argue that 'mapping' is a structure embedded within the work and structuring the viewing experience, but nevertheless, that it is not a medium. Rather, I suggest. 'mapping' figures forth for these artists what work it was that a 'medium' of art had done. The map became a bridge for these artists to effect their own passage from the medium; and consequently, I argue, it becomes a means for us to understand now, what a medium of visual art is or ever was. The processes of memory, and Smithson's own complex theorization of time's passing, inflect this use of mapping as refraction, after-effect or left­over of the medium; with implications for thinking about the medium today. David Jeffreys Open University in the East of England Paintings, Objects and Demonstrations: Redefining Medium in the Work of Rauschenberg and Metzger This paper considers the work of Robert Rauschenberg and Gustav Metzger, whose careers date back to the 1950s. Through a consideration of early works by both that seemingly use similar processes and materials, I will explore how their practices can provide models of differing attitudes to the notion of the medium that persist today. I will contest the notion that Rauschenberg subverts the traditional divisions between painting and sculpture and instead claim that the significance of these works lies in an expanded notion of painting as both object and practice. In contrast, Metzger's practice, whilst utilising the broadly formal qualities of traditional media is such that the use of certain objects and substances provide a more expansive view of a work of art's capacity to defy convention. However, I will claim that in doing so, he returns medium to an earlier definition, that of an agency that articulates meaning in human action rather than a specific practice. Ultimately, I wish to suggest that these different models mirror the way in which today the manifestation of a range of definitions of the term medium exist simultaneously even within the practice of the same artist. Susan Morris Central St. Martin's, London The Paradox at the Heart of the Photographic Apparatus This paper explores the following ­often speculative - themes: Simone Weil expresses the paradoxical desire 'to see a landscape as it is when I am not there', which could be a description of the complex drives that led to the invention of photography. Yet Henry Talbot's attempt to describe this invention as a process 'By Which Natural Objects May be Made to Delineate themselves Without the Aid of the Artist's Pencil' is thwarted by the actual photograph, which both 'reflects and constitutes its object'. Drawing on psychoanalytic theory, which states that there is always something constitutional that the subject is separated from, I will discuss how the construction of a point of view organised by the system of perspective mirrors ways in which identity is structured. I will put forward the proposition that the desire to photograph could be formulated as a yearning to see the 'whole' picture, without the viewer's absence in it. I will argue that, because a connection to the indexical paradoxically haunts even a digital print, it is possible, via digital technology, to jump between photographic 'genres' and to reroute interpretational contexts. As well as discussing my own digital work I will briefly touch on those of other artists, such as Julian Opie and Thomas Demand. Graham Gussin, whose work 'challenges the viewer's ability to locate themselves in a definable space' also navigates the territory outlined above. Katerina Reed-Tsocha University of Oxford The Theorized Medium: From Self-Criticality To Self-Differentiality This paper will examine the different theoretical disguises of the medium as pure, hybrid, allographic, or aggregative structure. My particular interest lies in analysing the large-scale conceptual impact of recent theoretizations of the medium as characterised by 'self-differential specificity' in an attempt to disentangle the various strands of theoretical motivation behind such claims which will emerge as not merely corrective of the excesses of Greenberg's purist programme, but also as strongly revisionist with respect to artistic practice. I will challenge the thesis that photography forces all the arts to enter a state of 'general equivalence' by locating contradictions within the deconstructive project, such as the one most notably encapsulated in Benjamin's essentialist claim that mechanical reproduction is inherent in the techniques of film. In a similar vein, I will consider the soundness of euphoric proclamations of a new era of mediumlessness on the basis of an equally essentialist understanding of the intrinsic replicability of digital media. Finally, focusing on the self-differentiality of digital media, I will highlight the implications for artistic practice of the theoretical ascription of allographicity. Session 10: Visual Cultures of Landscape Simon Faulkner Manchester Metropolitan University The geographer David Matless has used the term 'cultures of landscape' (Landscape and Englishness, 1998) to describe the ways in which particular sets of practices 'generate particular ways of being in landscape' and thus form the basis of specific kinds of identity. This session will emphasise the visual aspects of cultures of landscape, looking at how visual representations have contributed to the establishment of particular ways of imaginatively and physically being in landscape. This emphasis upon 'being in landscape' encourages the consideration of the function of visual representations within what Matless defines as 'processes of subjectification effected through landscape'. This means that visual representations of landscape should not be considered simply as symbolic within formations of identity, but also as a kind of cultural practice, amongst others, that contributes to the construction of geographical selves. Thus an emphasis is placed not merely on the interpretation of landscape imagery, but also on understandings of the use of such images in relation to practices of spatial movement, occupation and demarcation. The session will prioritise artistic representations of landscape, but will also pursue an intermedial approach by encouraging the identification of links between fine art and other kinds of visual culture. The session will allow for the discussion of current relationships between the study of visual culture and human geography. Paul Usherwood School of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Northumbria The bleak philosophy of northern ridges A certain kind of northern English landscape is frequently invoked in the writing and photography of the interwar years, one that is bleak and forbidding and yet at the same time supposedly strangely compelling. Its particular appeal, it seems, lies in what it has to offer those members of the southern English middle classes who have a need to escape the onrush of consumer society or who harbour feelings of guilt about never having experienced military service or the hardships of poverty. This paper will argue that this landscape still appears in British visual culture but that nowadays, significantly, it is liable to do so in a setting that one would not normally think of as geographically northern. Ed Lilley History of Art Department, University of Bristol Inventing a Modern Nature: Claude-Francois- Denecourt and the Forest of Fontainebleau My paper would suggest situating Denecourt outside the categories assigned by­present-day commentators. He was more, I would argue, than the locally-based entrepreneur providing opposition to the increasingly hegemonic Paris-led appropriation of nature posited by Nicholas Green (The Spectacle of Nature) and certainly- more than the 'inventor of hiking', (flippandy?) articulated by Simon Schama (Landscape and Memory). Denecourt's activities from 1839 until his death in 1875 (writing and publishing guidebooks, clearing paths, naming interesting features) were seen by his contemporaries in a different light. Champfleury's 1859 'roman a clef Les Amis de la nature, important to my argument, sees him as the inventor of the forest, a claim I wish to pursue. I do not want to recruit him to the ranks of landscape gardeners or anachronistically to claim that he was a Land artist. Rather, I want to present him as an innovative creative force providing new ways of experiencing landscape. In 1855, a Hommage a C.-F. Denecourt included contributions from forty-three 'intellectuals'. This, combined with his 'artefact' (the forest), makes him an artist according to the admittedly flawed institutional theory of art but I hope to go several stages beyond this in my analysis. David Matless, Paul Merchant & Charles Watkins School of Geography, University of Nottingham Visual Cultures of Regional Landscape: Breckland This paper considers the visual culture of landscape in relation to a particular region, Breckland in East Anglia, drawing on diverse visual cultural materials including archaeological drawings, scientific manuals, forestry handbooks, topographic studies and planning guides. The paper draws out contested senses of regional landscape in the period 1939-1970, a time of significant ecological and sociological change in the area. Cultures of landscape are shown to be central to debates over regional identity, and taking a regional focus enables a demonstration of how visual cultures work through specific landscapes, whether in terms of general arguments over what a distinctive regional landscape should be, or debates over specific sites. The paper draws on material from a range of scientific and expert practices influencing Breckland in die period; ecology, nuclear research, urban planning, forestry, military training, archaeology, topographic writing. All are treated as cultural practices working the landscape for different purposes. A range of commentators worked from the premise that Breckland was a form of blank canvas (a flatfish, dry, sandy region of sparse population between counties and with little recognised conventional cultural value), setting up the region for different kinds of experimental endeavour, whether ecological, archaeological and forestry research, social experiment through new town or forest development, military training on closed batde areas, or nuclear science at a proposed particle accelerator site. Others by contrast valued the 'primitive' qualities of the landscape against 'modern' intrusions, evoking a landscape with a curious history and culture endangered in the contemporary world. Breckland was defined and debated through such diverse cultures of landscape. A region's cultural geography is produced through such contest, and the paper concludes by considering the theoretical implications of such a study for understandings of landscape and visual culture. Divya Tolia-Kelly Department of Geography, University College London Visualising Diaspora: Cultures of Landscape in the South Asian Experience This paper will examine the 'ways of seeing' inscribed in the descriptions of idealised landscapes of South Asian women in North West London. The artist Melanie Carvalho has produced 22 canvases from these descriptions as part of a collective project. These descriptions and canvases are considered as visual expressions of the negotiation of diasporic migration. For the post-colonial South Asian population living in Britain, dis-enfranchisement from a sense of Englishness and English landscape has resulted in new configurations of identification. These configurations are expressed in this landscape project as mediations between 'home' landscapes and Englishness, as well as ways of negotiating different cultures of identification and being. Memory, aesthetics and textures of nature are discussed in the paper as important components of diasporic engagements with landscape as a visual framing of identification with places of belonging, and as an experience of environment, and citizenship within England. Leora Maltz History of Art and Architecture, Harvard University Landmarks: David Goldblatt and the Marking of the South African Landscape In his 1997 book, South Africa.The Structure of Things Then, David Goldblatt photographed the structures that mark the South African landscape, attempting to articulate, as he put it, Y'their indefinable qualities of belonging.\" In this paper, I examine Goldblatt's stated interest in pursuing how these marks on the landscape articulate their claims of belonging to the land; I also trace a counter-narrative of loss and longing that emerges in architecture, monuments, and in the vehicles that traverse Goldblatt's landscapes. I focus especially on these vehicles, which function as signifiers of the anxious rival claims to the land voiced by various racial and cultural denominations. Vehicles become objects of fantasy and escape in the bounded landscape of the mine, or signal the transience of the migrant experience and forced removals. Goldblatt also highlights the persistent Afrikaner invocation of the vehicle to represent their historical claim to the land by moving over its surface. Indeed, a 1988 photograph by Goldblatt records the parallel tracks made in the ground by the Afrikaners' wheeled wagons. In this way, the vehicle becomes synonymous with the lines of division that cut across the landscape. For in South Africa, landscape was not only a cultural practice deeply implicated in apartheid politics, but it also profoundly marked the identities of the South Africans living in it. Robert Grant University of Kent 'The Country Around has all the Appearance of a Homelike English Landscape': Mid-nineteenth-century British Images of Colonial Landscapes Mid-nineteenth-century British emigrants faced abandonment of familiar social and cultural co-ordinates for settings that were unfamiliar, even threatening. If anything, distance itself was the problem here, and contemporary promoters of emigration sought to dissolve that distance, taking imaginative possession of distant landscapes by drawing on a deep-seated identification of English landscape and national identity. Their images of colonial landscapes were consequently defined not so much by the 'nature' of landscape as by the nature of settlement. They offered a space in which the co-ordinates of settler identity were secured against familiar reference points, suggesting inhabiting the colonial landscape would be very much like inhabiting the landscape of the home country, or at least an idealised version of it. The paper also tracks ways in which native figures were deployed in these landscapes, arguing that their contingent presences were markers of relations more imagined than real. Although native elements did not always disappear entirely, their progressive occlusion was telling, nudging the images away from rough, semi-rural frontiers shared with a race of 'savages', to ones in which the figures and activities were more assimilated to scenes of European settlement, material wealth and happy- racial co-existence. Kathlaine Nyden School of Fine Arts, Indiana University Viewing Nationalism, Displaying Regionalism, Demonstrating Identity: The Function of the Bohemian Landscape in Late Nineteenth- Century Czech Painting Monumental Czech landscape murals and paintings are dismissed by past and present scholars as romantic and formulaic quasi-historical representations of Bohemia's countryside. As a result, they are overlooked in critical discourses surrounding the concept of nation formation. The most influential Czech landscape artist of the late nineteenth century Julius Marak demonstrates however, that the paintings are not only an intrinsic element in the debate over national identity they initiated and activated nationalist rhetoric. Marak's allegorical, rustic, and leisure landscapes will be examined as Y'contact zones\" where a number of key issues in the debate over regional and national character emerged and merged. The geographic specificity, for example, that Marak employs in his figural and unpopulated landscape paintings codify an iconography of national and regional identity. They are politically charged historical maps of significant sites which affirm the rite of Czech independence and statehood. Late nineteenth century Czech landscape painting therefore, re-presents specific sites of national political significance generating alternative and often competing Czech national and regional identities at a time when the Austro-Hungarian Empire ruled the Czech people. Tricia Cusack Centre for Lifelong Learning, University of Birmingham The Chosen People: Hudson Valley Landscapes and American Identity Over die nineteenth century, the ideology of nationalism emerged strongly in Europe and die USA, and constructing national landscapes was part of this process. Early American setders saw themselves as a people chosen by God to occupy and civilise the 'New World'. It has been argued that the condition of frontier setdements 'advancing against a wilderness' also forged America's attachment to principles of independence and liberty. The paper will explore how 'Hudson River School' paintings helped to construct the notion of a uniquely American wilderness, representing the pioneering values of Protestantism, independence and freedom. Pioneers were depicted as white and masculine. In critical writings on Hudson River paintings, litde attention is paid to how American identity was premised on the exclusion of Native American culture (represented only by occasional picturesque figures) and on the effective exclusion of women as agents of nation- formation (apart from their role in begetting future pioneers). The paper will address these issues, as well as how Hudson River paintings negotiated the inherent conflict between associating American identity with the wilderness, or with the civilised setded landscape, including urban tourism on the Hudson. Sighle Breathnach-Lynch National Gallery of Ireland The Role of Landscape in Constructs of Irish National Identity Given that physical landscape is an image that can be read, then the painted landscape is the image of an image. A multi-layered reading of the imagery of the western coast of Ireland reveals it to be not only a locus for aesthetic inspiration but also to have played an important role in relation to constructs of national identity and constructions of gendered difference. In the decades following political independence in 1922, the overwhelming need to be uniquely different from the country's erstwhile ruler, Great Britain, led to constructing an identity of Ireland and the Irish as a pure unitary race, rural-based, Irish speaking and Roman Cathohc. This paper argues that as territory is the basis of the nation, the imaginative possession and characterisation of the lands through visual art was important to nationalism. It demonstrates how painted images of the West played an active role in the formation of that 'new' identity. The interpretation of the landscape by a number of important Irish artists is explored. So too the differing motivation behind the portrayal of such images. How the work was received at the time of production and what this signifies is also analysed. Session 10: Visual Cultures of Landscape Yvonne Scott Trinity College Dublin The Iconography of Absence: Lost Horizons, Distant Traces Our place in the landscape is articulated by reference to markers and traces, which serve to site us physically and socially. The conscious removal of such points of reference by many artists is a defining characteristic of contemporary Irish landscape imagery. This paper argues that the consequent sense of displacement and disorientation serves to subvert the ideological certainties of the integrative (but therefore excluding) monocultural identity proposed by artists earlier in the twentieth century. The traditional anthropocentric 'view' assumes a position perpendicular to the earth and with a viewing trajectory approximately parallel with the ground. The anchor for such a perspective is normally the horizon, with all of its emblematic connotations. At least since the middle of the twentieth century, this convention has been increasingly challenged in Irish art whereby a shifting perspective has obviated the horizon, through various perspectival devices. In tandem with this, the less stable, fluxive components of landscape (sea and sky) which typically present no obvious/visible mark of human engagement, have been foregrounded. With reference to relevant theorists, the debate considers the iconology of these structural and material components and what these developments achieve in terms of repositioning the viewer in the physical environment. Session 11: Has the Bubble Burst? Sylvia Lahav National Gallery Sara Selwood University of Westminster Tate Modern, New Art Gallery, Walsall, The Lowry, and more recently, the Baltic have all attracted huge interest and visitor numbers have far exceeded expectations. For these new galleries, the days of a white-cube culture have passed. Methods of interpretation and display have been re-evaluated and a wider range of text, audio and visual guides are now standard for their visitors. Education departments meet a seemingly ever-growing need for lectures, gallery talks, seminars and courses for both general and specialist audiences, while fund raising sponsorship and marketing has become an essential arm of the museum's activities. But while increased visitor numbers may be used to justify government's grant in aid and national museums are free, not everything in the garden is rosy. Lottery distributors are regularly criticised for failing to anticipate how capital projects would create greater revenue costs. Financial crises are common, building and maintenance costs are mounting and a continued emphasis on increasing visitor numbers is putting a strain on resources, financial as well as personnel. Andrew Brighton Independent writer, formerly Tate Modern The Inclusion Industry: An Enemy of Art? Are education departments the Trojan Horse in the institutions of art? This paper will look at the origin and principles of social inclusion policies and will attempt to present the arguments for this social agenda in order to criticise them. It will argue that the social agenda set for museums and art galleries is just one symptom of a changing relationship between government and civil society in the West inaugurated by the end of the Cold War. A change from a negative to a positive concept of liberty. Maurice Davies Museums Association Increasing Access Since 1997 the UK government has had a policy of 'increasing access' to museums and galleries. In principle this drive to attract more types of people, more often is supported by museums and galleries, too. But the government has a remarkably under­developed sense of what 'increased access' might mean in practice. Overwhelmed by the urge to spin, government statements confuse their terminology and manipulate data. Funding agreements between government and museums are equally-unsatisfactory. This paper will look at what government rhetoric does and does not say and what is in fact happening to museum and gallery audiences. Questions explored will include how free admission seems to affect audiences, whether the lottery has made any difference and whether there Margaret O'Brien The British Museum The Discreet Charm of the Thing Itself: Museums, Material Culture and the Adult Learner As museum educators we increasingly assert that museums are places of learning for all, the casual visitor as well as the specialist scholar. The present day 'museum experience' as cultural/social centre as well as repository of objects is particularly conducive to informal learning. In particular, the perceived value of learning from objects - the stamp of authenticity, the visual and tactile pleasures to be had and the potential for more systematic learning through discovery and analysis ­makes learning from material culture a seductive prospect. This paper sets out to critically examine the above assertions through a discussion of available research and an examination of a pilot project with the University of the Third Age on the value of the British Museum as a site of learning for older adults. Jacob Simon National Portrait Gallery Structure and Culture: Success and Failure in Museums and Cultural Institutions in Britain In the last generation, the great expansion in tertiary education has increased the potential pool of visitors to museums and cultural institutions. But at the same time, audiences have become more sophisticated and discriminating. This has led to changes This paper asks if it is possible to explain differences in effectiveness in adapting to a changing world, not by focusing on short-term funding problems or an access-led agenda, but by identifying a variety of long-term influences, whether societal, governance-related, structural or attitudinal. It seeks to identify some of the fundamentals behind the long-term success and failure of national museums, local government and university museums, the National Trust and the voluntary sector. Museums and galleries can be among the most successful institutions in modern society but to succeed we need to understand certain fundamentals and then reach out and sell our message. Dominic Willsdon Tate Modern and Royal College of Art Overcoming Excellence My paper takes Bill Readings' distinction (The University in Ruins, Harvard UP, 1996) between the nineteenth century idea of the 'University of Culture' and the contemporary 'University of Excellence', and applies it to museums. Thus, broadly, the museum of culture would be autonomous and devoted to developing critical faculties, and the museum of excellence would be heteronomous and governed by performance criteria such as efficiency, output and accountability. In relation to universities or museums, the central question is the same. Assuming that there is no going back to the modern museum of culture, which never existed anyway, what can be the ethical or political value of (aesthetic) judgement now, and how-can such a value be embodied in institutions? I want also to ask how practically can we resist or overcome excellence in museums, and in what ways, and on what principles, are differences of approach in England, in visitor patterns where adaptable institutions certain museum activities - e.g. teaching and Scotland and Wales. thrive and others sink. research - ought to be developed to this end. Sylvia Lahav The National Gallery Falling Apart at the Themes: Mourning the Particular Zygmunt Bauman uses the terms fluidity or liquidity as metaphors for our present form of twenty-first century modernity. In Bauman's world of 'liquid modernity', time has become superior to space, transience more desirable than durability, and individualization takes precedence over community. This paper will explore the issues Bauman raises in relation to the museum space and ask whether our fascination for the 'thematic' both in display and interpretation may be understood as reflective of the dialogue of liquid modernity and whether the public space the museum offers is one of 'real' community or an example of what Bauman calls, a cloakroom community. Helen Rees Leahy Centre for Museology, University of Manchester Rewriting the Gallery: The Politics and Practice of Interpretation When Manchester Art Gallery (MAG) reopened in May 2002, after a closure of four years, the redisplay of the collections marked a deliberate shift in the policy and practice of interpretation in the Gallery. Reflecting the requirements of funders to create a more accessible and inclusive institution as a result of £35million of capital investment, a new interpretation strategy was explicitly designed to produce a more diverse public for MAG which, in turn, aimed to be more responsive to the needs and interests of its visitors. This paper investigates the relationship between institutional intention and actual visitor behaviour. A potent symbol of the regeneration of post-industrial Manchester, MAG explicitly celebrates the past and present city - and by implication, its own place within its civic and cultural economies. In fact, this paper argues, the fractures produced by different interpretative schemes in different parts of MAG reproduce the fractured identity of the city itself. Session 12: The Ends of Photography Frances Stracey History of Art Department, University College London Stewart Martin Philosophy Department, Middlesex University Andrew Fisher The Slade School of Fine Art, UCL Art practice and criticism is characterised today by the absence of disputes over photography as a legitimate form of art. This appears to have brought to an end a controversy that has in many ways constituted modernism in the visual arts. One of the most conspicuous and historically new forms that this legitimacy has taken is the emergence of a form of photography characterised by its large and even monumental scale, its highly professionalised production, its thematic relation to traditions of modern painting, and its high profile within the commercial and museum culture of contemporary art. Given its emphatic legitimacy and high profile as art, this new form of photography may be thought of as 'art-photography'. However, if this art-photography does indeed present one of the most explicit symptoms of photography's new found legitimacy as art, its status within the transformation of art that photography has historically induced is nevertheless fundamentally questionable. In many respects it may be regarded as restoring or recovering various conventions of art that photography had historically appeared to question and even attempt to destroy. If the attempt to preserve art's autonomy from photography is largely obsolete and, where it persists, a conservative concern, this does not exhaust the critique of art that photography has historically introduced. But it does indicate the need to rethink and reconfigure the terms of this critique, and therefore the need to articulate a new discourse on photography's critique of art. Andrew Fisher Slade School of Fine Art, UCL Alan Sekula's World of Photography In this paper, an examination of Allan Sekula's photographic-text work. Fish Story, forms the basis of an attempt to critically evaluate recent developments in photographic art practices. Fish Story is a continuation of Sekula's well known social-historical critique of photographic discourse and his complex relation to photographic realism. This paper examines Fish Story in terms of its open yet sequential organisation, its engagement with social form and political critique and its proliferation of strategies of photographic representation. On the basis of this description I attempt to elaborate a critical model with which to assess the currently central and problematic relationship between photographic narrative and aesthetic experience in recent art-photography. Sas Mays Slade School of Fine Art, UCL Becoming Dust: Vik Muniz and the Ends of Photography's Institutional Critique The legitimation of art-photography is significantly a product of exhibitions policies conducted by art galleries and museums; policies which are archived in the exhibitions records constituted by the installation shot. Institutional co-option of photography is thus on two fronts: in the rhetorical modes of art and of the neutered document. These contradictory modes are internal to the general historical rhetoric of photography. How might a photographic practice determined (even negatively) by these institutionally functional terms also be institutionally critical? Muniz's large scale photographs, 'Pictures of Dust' (2000) - graphic copies of installation photographs - are symptomatic of a collapse of art and photography's difference from commercial orthodoxy into spectacularised institutional tautology. Nevertheless, the graphic use of institutional debris exceeds and undermines photographic indexicality. This effects a partial and literal impact on the visual field which stands in difference to the institutional version of photographic perspicacity. The paper analyses photographic and institutional transparency, suggesting that: a differential relation to the institutions of art is necessary in a milieu where opposition is commodified; that archival critique as an option among others might avoid its own monumentalisation and hence co-option; that such a position might require an exit from photography's technical specificity. Frances Stracey UCL Myth and the Readymade in David Levinthal's The rise in the 1980s of what is now generally labelled appropriation-photography - in the work of, for instance, Richard Prince, Sherrie Levine and Barbara Kruger - can be understood as the full absorption of the logic of the ready-made into photographic art practice. Like its Duchampian predecessor, the deployment of the ready-made, in the form of mechanically reproduced images, was used to question the nature of institutionalised art-photography: was art inherent to the photo's medium; was it an auratic attribute of the author; conferred by the institution; or ratified by its consumption? It also enabled a critique of the politics of representation at stake in photographic practice outside of the immediate institutions of art, such as the supposed 'truth-value' accredited to an indexical model of documentary photograph)-. However, the correlation of appropriation-photography and a politics of representation, relies upon the reduced logic of the subversive effect of a re-presented image, (a reduction which Kruger can be seen to mitigate through the deployment of language). David Levinthal's photographs of mass-produced toys can be understood as a novel response to this predicament. The use of these toys extends the reduced logic of the ready-made cultural artefact through their playful configuration, as well as through the more Session 12: The Ends of Photography complex forms of photographic technique this allows (such as magnification, blurring, depth of focus). This enables a distinctive critical re-presentation of cultural myth, for instance, in his series of photographs The Wild West (1987-1989) and American Beauties (1989­ 1990). However, Levinthal also introduces a number of photographic techniques, which would seem to renege on the avant-garde claims of appropriation-photography, such as the reintroduction of pictorial composition and the use of large-scale polaroids that emphatically reassert the unique and the expertly crafted image. This paper examines this problematic ambiguity in Levinthal's work, particularly with respect to its presentation of myth, and diagnoses it as symptomatic of the conditions of art- photography today. Diarmuid Costello Oxford Brookes University The Resurrection of 'Aura' in the Age of Digital Technology: Re-reading Benjamin Today This paper reconsiders Benjamin's classic essays on photography from the thirties ('The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction' and 'A Small History of Photography') in the light of recent developments in photographic technology and artistic practice. It is written from a philosophical and art-theoretical perspective and focuses on Benjamin's claim that photographically-based processes of reproduction entail the "withering of aura", i.e. the atrophy of the possibility of aesthetic experience in contemporary society, a thesis to which he attached great political significance. The paper begins by looking at the way in which Benjamin's thesis was used in art theory (particularly by theorists such as Crimp, Owens, Buchloch, etc., based around the journal October in the 1970s and 1980s) to underwrite the work of a generation of photographic artists associated with debates around postmodernism in art (Levine, Sherman, Lawlor et al). Benjamin's central claim that photography was changing the structure of experience - notably perception — was used to position such work both politically and aesthetically in opposition to contemporaneous painting, which was criticized for espousing all the values ­authority, authenticity, originality etc. - that Benjamin held photographic reproducibility to undermine. In the light of this historical and theoretical background the paper turns to some of the most interesting photographic work being made today (Wall, Gursky, Dijkstra), specifically to the use of the digital manipulation of imagery in much of this work. The paper argues that contemporary photography can be seen to invert Benjamin's claim, re-invigorating aura in art and doing so, moreover, on Benjaminian grounds. Like film, which Benjamin regarded as the culmination of photographic technology, computer- enhanced photography produces images without originals (as what they picture cannot be found beyond the image itself). Moreover, by doing so, the use of computer-technology as a medium re­ invests the work with an auratic dimension, bringing photography closer to the condition of painting. The photographic artist now has to work the medium in order to construct the image, which is no longer determined by the moment the camera's shutter falls, and that work - drawing on aesthetic feeling, intuition and imagination - has a significant effect on the kind of experience that photography is capable of occasioning in turn. This suggests that technology processes in themselves do not have the intrinsic political significance with which Benjamin credited them; rather, this devolves on the artistic intentions with which they are used, and the kind of ends for which they are deployed. Stewart Martin Middlesex University Art-photography after Conceptualism This paper is intended as a contribution to the attempt to diagnose some of the fundamental constituents of contemporary art-photography; that is, to examine the dominant conditions that have enabled the legitimacy of photography — critically as well as commercially - within the contemporary art-world. To this end it examines today's art-photography as the problematic outcome of conceptual art, its decline and its afterlife, including its perceived failures. Most specifically, the paper will examine the theoretical and photographic work of Jeff Wall as a model of this formation of an art-photographic practice. Through a critique of Wall's formalism - as well as the formalism of other supposedly post-Greenbergian theorists of photography, such as Rosalind Krauss - the paper attempts to recover a radically non-formalist and fundamentally emancipatory model of avant-garde practice from its perceived ruins in conceptual art, and to propose it anew for the engagement ­both theoretical and practical - with the contemporary art of photography. John Roberts University of Wolverhampton Snapshot Ideology and the Critique of Value The rise of photography within the major institutions of art since the late 1980s has inverted the relations between photographic practice and the artisanal. The critical role of photography no longer distinguishes itself from the institutional dominance of painting, but from the institutional dominance of photography itself. That is, under the vast filmic transformation of the production and reception of contemporary art the use of the photograph in contemporary art has had to address itself to the reaestheticization and reprofessionalization of photography. This is reflected in the widespread return in contemporary art (and also in popular cultural activities) to the deflationary function of the snapshot, its domesticity and obvious refusal of aesthetic 'repleteness'. This paper will look at the snapshot in recent art and recent cultural phenomena such as Lomography and Indymedia. Session 13: The Prevalence of Print Culture: Communication Art in the Nineteenth Century Penny Wickson & Jason Shron University of Birmingham The printed image has informed popular understanding of all aspects of human development and interaction, from technology to travel, ethnicity to class consciousness. The print has been a news outlet, a means for distraction, an instrument of devotion, an ideological apparatus, a tool for hegemonic control. The dissemination of the printed image was at its greatest in the final years before photography came to dominate image reproduction. The falling costs of production and the increasingly literate and mobile population encouraged 'bigger and better' publishing enterprises in England and North America. In much of Europe, the printed image maintained its supremacy as the dominant means for visual communication, articulating thought and feeling among a population still largely illiterate. Around the world, prints provided widespread access to the popular 'high art' images of the day, as well as being valued as works of art in their own right. The impact of prints on public opinion and ways of perception was unmatched; the mobility and intelligibility of the medium allowed for widespread articulation of common ideas. While two aspects of this period in printmaking history have been extensively studied - caricature and posters by well known artists - the boom years of the printed image have not received their due attention in art historiography. In the days before photography, film and television, the print was the interdisciplinary art medium. This session will examine the roles played by prints, illustrated journals and publishing projects in constructing visual identities towards the end of the print era. Alison Walker University of Ulster, Belfast The 'Noble' Ragged Child in Victorian Evangelical Illustrated Children's Literature During the 1840s and 50s a penchant for representing the ragged, or destitute, child as the 'other' dominated popular illustrated literature. Notions of idealised, or 'proper' childhood had been safely planted in the Victorian psyche and satirists such as John Leech were able, through the use of caricature, to play on the 'unchildish' and disagreeable characteristics of destitute children. However, from the 1860s onwards, and corresponding with a surge in philanthropic endeavour, a new identity was created for the destitute child through the vehicle of the Evangelical illustrated children's novel and magazine. Sunday school reward books such as Hesba Stretton's Little Meg's Children began to portray poor children whose material loss was evident only by the condition of their ragged clothing. Unlike Leech's urchins, whose haggard features and infuriating behaviour reinforced the perception of the street child as 'other', these 'noble' destitute children displayed the same delicacy of countenance and moral and religious sensibilities more commonly used to represent their idealized middle-class peers. Social historians agree that Evangelical philanthropists were moved to act by what they saw as a lack of 'proper', or acceptable, childhood in the lives of poor children, and this paper will consequently question the utilization of idealised qualities in the construction of a new identity for the destitute child. Susan Waller University of Missouri - Saint Louis Pifferari and La Fornarina in Paris: Constructions of Italian peasants in Mid-nineteenth Century French Print Media As a case study in the disparate visual cultures of nineteenth century print media, this paper will examine transformations in the social construction of Italian immigrants to Paris. After 1850 substantial numbers of peasants emigrated from impoverished rural Italy to French urban centers in search of employment. In Paris the men worked as street musicians, known as pifferari from their bagpipes, and both men and women posed for artists. The immigrants' popularity in Parisian ateliers was insured by the academic tradition that valorized Italian Renaissance art: in lithographs marketed through dealers — as in Salon paintings — contemporary Italian peasants were associated with Raphael's models, particularly la Fornarina. Within the high art tradition they were admired as embodiments of a classic ideal, but a conflicting social identity was constructed in images published in popular boulevard journals in the latter half of the century. As the Italian community became established, its members' peasant dress made them conspicuous on the streets of Paris. In popular illustrations, pifferari were reconstructed as atavistic and brutish intruders in the modern metropolis. The ideal of the academic tradition became the "other" in the Parisian imagination. Meaghan Clarke University of Sussex 'Black and White Devils': Print Culture in the 1890s This paper uses an 1 897 libel case as its springboard: Pennell v. Sickert. Slade lecturer in illustration, Joseph Pennell, sued Walter Sickert for writing that Pennell's transfer lithography was not a genuine artistic process and won. The dispute opens up a wider debate around the print in late nineteenth-century visual culture. The market for illustrated periodicals and books experienced enormous growth, yet the new print culture was also a site for increasing contention, coinciding with rapidly-changing technologies for image making and reproduction. Six years earlier Pennell had been embroiled in another court case; he accused Hubert Herkomer of passing photogravurs off as etchings. Pennell, and his partner art critic and travel writer Elizabeth Robins Pennell, published illustrated articles in numerous journals, including the Century, Harper's, Illustrated London News, Magazine of Art, Art Journal, and over twenty books. They repeatedly insisted on the pivotal role of the print within contemporary art, and became involved, along with James McNeill Whistler and Seymour Haden, in the etching revival in England. I will contend that, through image and text, the Pennells advanced the print boom — intervening in the complex tension around illustration whilst simultaneously demanding professional recognition for the 'gravur'. Session 13: The Prevalence of Print Culture: Communication Art in the Nineteenth Century J. M. Mancini University of Sussex From the Christmas Card to the Avant-Garde: The Rise and Fall of Chromolithography in the Nineteenth Century United States Scholars have long understood that new media were one of the key vectors of cultural, social, and political change in nineteenth-century America. While much is known about photography and the mass print media, however, relatively little attention has been paid to another, distinctively nineteenth-century medium: chromolithography. This is a shame, because the rise and sudden fall of chromolithography between the 1860s and the 1890s reveals a great deal about the emergence of modern American culture and the contests for control that accompanied it. As both a hugely popular medium in its own right, and as the target for an emerging critique of mass and consumer culture that has defined a significant segment of the American cultural elite since the nineteenth century, chromolithography was at the centre of a contest for the control of culture that continues until this day. Focusing on lithographer, image entrepreneur and art-education publisher Louis Prang, this paper will explore chromolithography in its most familiar guise - as a contributor to a newly emerging consumer culture. At the same time, it will also explore less-well known aspects of the medium, including its role in the transformation of American art education, the fostering of both vanguardism and the greater participation of women within the American art world, and the more general emergence of a "culture in colour" that had a significant impact not only on American popular culture, but on early American modernists like Stanton MacDonald-Wright and Marsden Hartley. Finally, it will situate the critique of chromolithography by critics like Clarence Cook and E. L. Godkin both within emerging critiques of mass culture and emerging discourses of modernism. Ruth E. Iskin Ben Gurion University Modernity's Quick-Time Images: Posters in Print Culture, 1880s-1900s This paper explores how European advertising posters participated in a cultural shift characteristic of modernity. It proposes that posters participated in producing the accelerated pace of production and reception of images in modernity. Mass-produced with the relatively new medium of color lithography, fm-de-siecle posters invented new modes of iconic address for speedy communication in the service of advertising. The paper explores how these large-scale, bright colored posters, often displayed on crowded boulevards, aimed to attract attention, stimulate desires in momentary encounters, and promise immediate gratifications. It probes the genre of posters as designed to catch the eye of passers-by, soliciting instantaneous gazes and producing quick-paced perceptions characteristic for modernity. Lia Yoka University of Thessaly, Greece Moments of Word and Image Interaction in Greek Cultural Journals Cultural journals in the modern period are a privileged training ground for visual literacy in propaganda and advertisement. It is in cultural journals that the interaction between the political and the artistic is most apparent. This does not make them allegories of ideological trends in any straightforward way. It does, however, illuminate various aspects of the introduction of new techniques in layout and illustration — techniques aiming to socialize the reader on multiple levels, such as commodity consumption, art appreciation or political affiliation. The end of the "long nineteenth century" (c. 1825-1912) in the modem Greek history of art journals is marked by the prevalence of images made especially to support articles rhetorically, rather than simply accompany them, often with an irrelevant content, as well as by the specialization of cultural journals in terms of the genres they hosted. These developments run parallel to a slower passage from a macro-historical symbolic function of illustration to an advertising function of a shorter span, and also, a growing tendency towards graphic integration in journal design. This paper examines moments in the interaction between the printed word and image in Athenian illustrated journals and journals focusing on the visual arts towards the turn of the twentieth century. Through examining examples of illustration of political articles, of cover design and page layout, the paper tries to recover the possible reception of the images, demonstrate the transitional, yet historically significant character of certain word and image encounters, and also avoid suppressing the poetic and accidental dimensions of these encounters. Matthew Plampin London A Stern and Just Respect for Truth: The Arundel Society's Prints of the Arena Chapel, Padua Between 1853 and 1856, the Arundel Society published a series of prints depicting Giotto's frescoes in the Arena Chapel. Control of this project was initially given to John Ruskin, who commissioned the prints and wrote an accompanying biographical essay. He was determined to provide the Society's subscribers with a truthful version of both the man and his art, and thus correct the misconceptions of Giotto he thought had been engendered in Britain by the work of earlier writers and engravers. The response to his efforts, however, was lukewarm at best, and in 1856 a full colour chromolithograph was included in the series. This late addition depicted a romantic, narrative scene of the painter at work in the company of Dante Alighieri, and was very different in tone to Ruskin's prints or biography. This paper will discuss the clash of views over the role of the art-historical print (and indeed art-historical instruction as a whole) encapsulated by this series. Was it a means of accurate reproduction for the purposes of education? Or was it rather a source of sensory and imaginative gratification, intended to entertain as much as inform? Session 14: Hierarchy in Late Medieval and Renaissance Art Luke Syson Victoria and Albert Museum Alison Wright University College London The drawing of distinctions, whether in relative status, honour or values of other kinds, is a constant feature of Late Medieval and Early Modern thought and discourse. This session considers how, and how far, hierarchical conceptions inform the types, construction and reception of images and objects in (though not necessarily from) western Europe in the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries. Attention is given to the relationship between different hierarchical models as they operated in social, political, religious and artistic spheres, how these shift over time, as well as to the importance of understanding how images/objects help to affirm, construct or subvert hierarchies within different societies rather than simply reflect them. Patricia Rubin Courtauld Institute of Art, London Hierarchies of Vision: Fra Angelico's 'Coronation of the Virgin' for San Domenico, Fiesole The altarpiece painted by Fra Angelico for the Observant Dominican church outside of Fiesole (now in the Louvre) represents the court of heaven assembled in celebration and contemplation of the Virgin. The company of prophets and saints is carefully selected and arranged to argue a case for the status and authority of the recently established observance. Envisioning the realm of the divine, it also shows modes of viewing: presenting examples of devotional behaviour, which were addressed to a range of viewers. Hierarchical as an image, this painting offers a case for the study of how devotional viewing was understood in relation to social and institutional hierarchies in early fifteenth- century Florence. Stephen.J. Campbell The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore Decentering Rome: Mantegna, Correggio and the Gonzaga By the 1500s, the Gonzaga dynasty of Mantua had long regarded Rome as a source of unparalleled power and prestige, which they sought to draw upon in the form of benefices and military contracts. Being feudatories of the Emperor, however, Rome was not a centre of authority to which the Gonzaga willingly committed their deference or obedience. On the other hand, Gonzaga artistic patronage represented a desire to emulate and even eclipse the cultural prestige of the eternal city. It is well known that Mantegna's Camera Picta explicitly casts Mantua as a 'New Rome' in its idealised landscape or Roman mirabilia and its imagery of the Twelve Caesars. While conventionally explained as a declaration of fealty to the Emperor, whose portrait appears in the frescoes, such imagery also betokens an emulation of the Roman Imperial model by the Gonzaga themselves. This paper will explore two instances of Gonzaga artistic commissions which seek to undermine the hegemony of Rome, at least in a cultural sense. It will be shown that Virgil, the great poet of Milan provided the ideological rationale for a trnaslatio Imperii from Rome to Mantua, and that this can be seen as the governing concept of Mantgna's celebrated Triumphs of Caesar. Following the Sack of Rome by imperial forces in 1 5 27, Isabella d'Este commissioned two paintings from Correggio which can be understood as a rationalisation of the Gonzaga's less than honourable implication in the devastatioon of Rome and the sacrilegious assault on the papacy. Michelle O'Malley University of Sussex Altarpieces and Agency Alfred Gell, in Art and Agency (1998), proposes an anthropological theory of art that focuses on the social context of art production, circulation and reception. Gell's central concern is with social relations and how art mediates among them in a given culture. His theory implicitly militates against traditional art historical concepts of hierarchy in the creation of a work of art, especially hierarchical distinctions made about the control exercised by patrons and painters in the creation of a new work and the establishment of its meaning. Instead of 'control', Gell posits 'agency', and he argues that agency in creating works may be enacted by artists, their clients, or the receivers of a work. Furthermore, the object itself, in particular circumstances, exerts agency in social relations. He does not claim a symbolic function for art but a causal and dynamic one. This paper will deal in particular with Gell's concept of a particular kind of object as 'a visible knot which ties together an invisible skein of relations'. It will test Gell's ideas in relation to Italian altarpieces by using a single case study to trace some of his conceptions of agency and their relevance for elucidating meaning in Renaissance works of art. Fabrizio Nevola University of Warwick From Civic Facade to Elite Development: Patronage Typologies in Sienese Palace Streets (c.1460-1520) This paper will address the changing patterns of collective patronage expressed in the architectural development of a number of Siena's principal streets from 1460-15 20, as documented through surviving buildings, archival sources and treatise literature. Initial comments will summarise the inclusive nature of civic policies which promoted the renovation of the city's principal facade, the Strada Romana, in the third quarter of the fifteenth century. The core of the paper will, however, concentrate on a number of case studies which represent the architectural expression of political change in Siena, during the last decade of the century. Analysis of the development of the Via del Capitano, a centrally located street entirely rebuilt by the city's new ruling group, will illustrate the dramatic change in patronage patterns that coincided with the installation of the new novesco government in 1487. While this street is the most obvious case of an exclusive oligarchic palace-street development in Siena, discussion will focus in the Via del Casato, adjacent to the piazza del Campo. Through tax evidence (1453­ 1509) and surviving examples of magnate palaces, it will be shown how the social composition and architectural formof this street altered over half a century, so that it became a prime residential enclave for the urban elite. Session 14: Hierarchy in Late Medieval and Renaissance Art Christopher Poke Independent Scholar Absolutely Grotesque: A Journey to the Lower Depths of the Art of Printmaking Any discussion of hierarchies in the visual arts should surely include prints, by their nature among the lowest of those objects in visual culture whose task is primarily to carry an image. Within this pecking order, the ornament print has come to lie at the very depths, not just of status, but also of art-historical interest. Indeed, when Samuel Quicchelberg drew up his plan for organising an ideal pictorial collection in 1565, he placed printed "ornamental designs" at the end of the third and last shelf of his fifth and last category. This paper will examine the standing of printmaking through the grotesque. These prints demonstrate the paradoxical quality of sixteenth-century evaluation of graphic work, since they also conveyed high prestige because their decorative ideas were sourced directly in antique painting, and were sanctioned by such highly regarded artists as Raphael. The paper will also explore the role of the print as a transmitter of classicising ornamental ideas, usually seen as emanating outwards from Italy in a hierarchy of influence, itself mediated through the arcane descent of issue, reworked state, reissue and copy that is intrinsic to the reproductive nature of the process. Marietta Cambareri Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Subject/Skill/'Material: The Spur of Hierarchy in Sculptural Representations in Sixteenth-Century Italy In this paper I will explore the notion of hierarchy of subject matter in sculptural representation as a spur to extraordinary displays of skill or virtuosity and to the use of precious, rare, or particularly fine materials for such subjects. Sculpture did not fall into the established categories used to rate genres of paintings in such treatises as Alberti's De Pictura. While history painting was rated as the highest genre, in sculpture, relief was rarely accorded the same status as monumental marble or bronze sculpture. Other criteria were at work. Is it possible to see, for example, the representation of Christ as the most exalted subject matter for sculpture, which in sixteenth-century Italy became the standard for the most elevated approach to the sculptor's craft and materials? .Arguments pointing to this idea have concentrated on the sculptor's work as an act of devotion or expression of the artist's spirituality, particularly concentrating on Michelangelo's Pieta groups. Lavin has argued that the marble monolith found it's highest expression in Passion images focusing on the body of Christ, in the particular context of sculptors' tombs. The monolith as a technical feat, a virtuoso display, has been explored in several studies. I would like to test the idea that it is, in fact, the subject matter itself that requires the highest skill of the artist, the finest materials, or the elevation of less precious materials through artistic skill. Can we trace in images of Christ as well as in contemporary literature such a hierarchy of approach? Looking beyond the works of Michelangelo and at a wide variety of materials, this paper will present an argument for looking at skill and material from the point of view of subject to search out ways that sculpture functioned broadly according to different hierarchies than those applied to painting in sixteenth-century Italy. Donal Cooper Victoria & Albert Museum The World at His Feet - Sassetta and Franciscan Hierarchies of Space and Virtue Sassetta's panel of 'St. Francis in Glory/Ecstasy' at Villa I Tatti provided the iconographic centrepiece to one of the largest, most fully documented and most expensive altarpieces of the fifteenth century, painted for the high altar of San Francesco, Sansepolcro between 143 7 and 1444. With vices trampled below the Poverello's feet and virtues circling his head, Sassetta's painting is both theologically schematic and intensely hierarchical, but its iconography has never been satisfactorily explained. This paper wil l contextualise the I Tatti image within a little studied tradition of Franciscan iconography, which juxtaposed Francis with mappamondo motifs, thereby anticipating similar images of San Bernardino later in the century. It will also present a detailed reconstruction of the painting, now lost, that Sassetta was asked to copy from the Franciscan church in nearby Citta di Castello. The recovery of this image, almost certainly painted by Spinello Aretino in the years around 1400, allows one to distinguish the innovative passages of Sassetta's painting from those dependent on extant models. The settings of these two altarpieces within their respective Franciscan churches adds a further layer of meaning to their hierarchical iconography, with their axial locations expressing the conformity of Francis to Christ through the spatial and liturgical organisation of the church interior. An important, but hitherto unrecognised reflection of this thinking is provided by a basse taille enamel altar cross from a Franciscan house in central Italy, now in the V&A collections. Sassetta's masterpiece - so often considered a rather archaic reiteration of Trecento modes of representation - can be placed within a vibrant Quattrocento tradition of saintly iconography, popularised through the new medium of mass-produced woodcuts and still in evidence as late as the early 1500s. Denise Allen The Frick Collection, New York Towards a Material Decorum: Cellini and Michelangelo on Gold, Gemstones, and Presentation Drawings In the Natural History Pliny ranked precious stones and metals according to their material value. Gemstones, like diamonds and emeralds, took foremost place, while gold and silver, the noblest precious metals, ranked far below them. In Pliny's hierarchy, the substantive value of gemstones and metals also stood in inverse relation to their appropriateness as artistic materials. Gold and silver could be improved by the artist's hand, but some precious gems transcended artistic intervention. This paper wil l explore how Cellini's approach to goldsmiths' work and jewelry was informed by Pliny's hierarchy of precious materials and then consider some implications this classical ranking might have had for the Renaissance paragone. Pliny's hierarchy provided Cellini with an antique precedent for his proposal that goldsmiths' work should enjoy co-equal status with the major arts. Gold's highest rank among the metals and low rank in the hierarchy of value made it the noblest and perfect sculptor's material, with the goldsmith's repousse technique demanding the same designing skill as painting or sculpture. Cellini also adopted a Plinian stance when he evaluated the role of precious stones as artistic materials, stating that carving could enhance only the least valuable of them. True gemstones, like emeralds, should not be engraved for, as the purest, most durable, and valuable of nature's products, they transcended the artist's ability to improve them. In this instance, Cellini used Pliny to underpin the standpoint that jewellers were neither artists nor craftsmen, but professional experts who worked exclusively with the most precious stones. In the Autobiography Cellini claimed Michelangelo sanctioned his views regarding the relationship between intrinsic preciousness and the appropriateness of artistic intervention. And his was likely a correct assessment. For, on one level, Michelangelo's presentation drawings may be understood as superbly refined examples of this aesthetic of material decorum - specifically, as witty paragone commentaries on the physical qualities of engraved translucent gems. In the presentation drawings, solely through the genius of his hand, Michelangelo transformed paper and chalk, the least valuable and permanent of materials, into something as precious and enduring as gems. And Michelangelo may have chosen the relatively new drawing media of red and black chalks, not only for their capacity to emulate luminously graven intaglio effects, but also because lapis rosso and pietra nera were stony like gems, and therefore appropriate materials for exquisitely finished lapidary drawings executed by the hand of a master sculptor. Georgia Clarke Courtauld Institute of Art, London Hierarchies of Language and Architecture Connections between architecture, language and literature are ones that have received increasing attention during recent years, but there are many aspects of these relationships still to consider. This paper sets out to explore issues relating to architecture associated with hierarchies of languages in Renaissance, and particularly fifteenth-century, Italy - that is Latin, Tuscan and other versions of the vernacular - and of translation from Latin to the vernacular (and vice versa). Can it be argued that there were similar interests and concerns in architecture as in literature, and is it possible to detect any sense of a hierarchy of languages or styles? Is this a useful model for thinking about architecture of the period and of the thorny topic of "Gothic" and/versus "classical" or "all'antica"? Might there have been significant regional and social differences in architecture, just as there were different modes of speaking in different places and contexts? So, too, did other aspects of architecture, such as materials and workmanship, constitute an alternative or additional hierarchical mode for thinking about or describing buildings? This paper will not seek to provide definitive answers but rather aims to further develop debate on these topics. Adrian W. B. Randolph Dartmouth College Flipped: Gender, Spectatorship and Figural Inversions in Italian Late Mediaeval and Renaissance Art The viewing of things set on their heads can be deeply annoying, for the act of visual inversion is, in general, disturbing. While it is possible for the inverted image to elicit a pleasurable response from a viewer seeking the sublimity of the topsy-turvy, most viewers would see 'upside-downness' as contravening seemingly natural laws of verticality and gravity, and thereby leading to a sense of estrangement and distance. This is pre­eminently the case when it comes to the human figure. My paper will examine various representations and intimations of 'upside­downness' in late mediaeval and Renaissance culture and sketch out some manners in which these figural inversions may have signified to contemporary viewers. This shall lead to a discussion of a particular type of hierarchical inversion involving gender roles-that seen on a special class of objects, deschi da parto or birth trays. In an important essay, Natalie Zemon Davis convincingly argued that the trope of gender inversion-the 'woman on top'-can be linked to the carnivalesque and the toppling of hierarchies, including those keeping gender norms in place. By linking some iconographies of inversion to some formal properties of inversion this paper aims to comment on women as spectators. It does so by complementing Anne Jacobsen Schutte's important article on deschi da parto, objects associated-pre-eminently-with female beholders. These trays, which functioned in the ceremonies attending birth, are either round or polygonal. The paper highlights the uncurtailable topsy­turviness of these objects. Intended to be handled, the physical character of these trays and the manner in which beholders used them helps us to grasp the iconographic tropes of inversion that one often finds painted on them. David R. Smith University of New Hampshire Portrait and Counter-Portrait in Holbein's 'The Family of Thomas More' Hans Holbein painted two portraits of Sir Thomas More, the first, the formal state portrait in the Frick Collection, the second, a monumental family portrait, which was lost in the eighteenth century, but survives in a drawing in Basel and three late sixteenth-century copies by Rowland Lockey. This paper argues that the latter is, in effect, a "counter-portrait," a deliberate parody of More's official, public persona in the Frick picture. Placed at the center of the 'Family Portrait', that public man and his hierarchal attributes are subdy undermined and inverted by the centrifugal forces of domestic life, which include heretofore unrecognized literary and symbolic allusions, not just informality' as such. Both the social values and the irony in this reading of the 'Family Portrait' mirror the personality and ideas of More himself, who must have collaborated closely with Holbein. More importandy, the picture belongs to a larger pattern of ironic response to hierarchy and ceremony in humanist art and thought, which Thomas Greene has labeled "ceremonial play." Holbein's "doubling" of Thomas More also reflects a Renaissance awareness of the equivocal, layered character of selfhood and identity, which has only recendy begun to attract the attention it deserves. Sally Korman Courtauld Institute of Art Image, Action, Devotion: Savonarola and the Printed Page In his treatise dell'Umilta (On Humility), Fra Girolamo Savonarola identifies twelve steps leading to the achievement of true humility. The first step is concerned with comportment and gesture: the second and fourth, speech and silence. Only at the end is the believer asked to commit appropriate scriptural passages to memory. For Savonarola, virtue begins wit h external physical behaviour: texts and the spoken word come later. This emphasis on the primacy of visual over verbal communication is reflected in the prominent role played by woodcut images in early printed texts of Savonarola's sermons and treatises. These books, produced during the friar's lifetime, were designed as physical objects to provoke the kinds of responses prescribed in his recommendations for devotional life. Mass-produced, with mechanically reproduced images, they invoke hierarchies of media and audience: aimed at laypeople, they provide a form of instruction more readily associated wit h the professional religious. Furthermore, in the case of printed editions of sermons, questions are raised about the nature of texts and performance, the hierarchy of the written and spoken word. More than simple illustrations, the woodcuts embody the physical attitudes considered necessary for the believer to achieve an experience of direct communication with the divine. Peta Motture Victoria & Albert Museum, London Bronze and Bronzes in the Renaissance: Hierarchies of Material and Making Bronze sculptural production arguably falls into a category of its own, not quite fitting neatly into either of the basic theoretical divisions of sculptural activity— reduction and addition - as formalised by Alberti. Not only was bronze an expensive, reusable material, but it was also an essential ingredient in artillery and bells, which in turn encapsulate military, religious or political use or reference. The Renaissance also saw the conscious revival of various types of bronze production associated with antiquity, including the equestrian monument and the statuette. In addition, bronze production generally involved the collaboration of 'artist' and 'artisan'. Together they produced objects that might now be considered to be 'art' alongside those which were clearly artistic but functional pieces. This paper will explore how the material and the range of its sculptural production was viewed during this period - a time during which advances were made in techniques of production as well as, and perhaps related to, the status of the sculptor. How were these different aspects of bronze production inter-related and in what ways did the one inform the other? What role was played by emulation of antiquity and the concomitant intellectual associations? And did this have any bearing on the choices and attitudes of the different categories of maker, commissioner and owner? Session 14: Hierarchy in Late Medieval and Renaissance Art Tom Campbell Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Threads of Magnificence: The Valuation of Renaissance tapestries Descriptions of Medieval and Renaissance court life abound with the mention of tapestries in both domestic and formal settings. Writing of the grandest events, contemporary chroniclers breathlessly describe the finest examples as "rich", "with gold" and "costly". Yet, in the absence of specific details, many descriptions now appear repetitive, and with the loss of most of the objects to which they referred, it is easy to dismiss them as formulaic. Just how exceptional were the finest tapestries? What material contribution did they really make to the perception of courtly "Magnificence"? This paper will consider the gradations of quality embodied by the tapestry collections of northern Europe during the first half of the sixteenth century, with particular attention to the Tudor court. It will discuss the factors that determined these distinctions, from hangings woven in coarse wool intended for quotidian purposes, to the finest examples woven in silk and gold from designs by the leading artists of the day. The paper will investigate the way that these distinctions determined modes of usage and valuation. It will also explore the extent to which material valuations coexisted or conflicted with a perception of the artistic merit of figurative tapestries, especially as North European patrons and artists began to learn more of developments in Italian art. 45 Session 15: Performing Objects/Animating Images Aura Satz Slade School of Fine Art, University College London Jon Wood Henry Moore Institute, Leeds This strand focuses on objects and images in relation to theatricality. Recent scholarship has highlighted an interest in the 'performing object' and pre-cinematic formats of the moving image (for example last year's Getty Research Institute exhibition Devices of Wonder: From the World in a Box to Images on a Screen). This strand will develop this by looking at the crossovers between art object and performing theatrical object, and at the articulation of sound, voice, kinetics and at the mechanics of the object and image. Genevieve Warwick Glasgow University Pasquinade: The Speaking Statues of Early Rome In sixteenth-century Rome, a series of antique busts and torsos displayed in city streets began to talk, quickly becoming mouthpieces of political dissent. With a biting, vituperative wit directed against papal excess, anonymous authors pasted poetic protest to these remains of Rome's ancient past. In the long history of political satire, early modern Rome's contribution was that of the ventriloquist statue. Their verses, dubbed pasquinades, take their place between graffitti and Punch-style magazines. Within the pasquinades' scope fell issues of urban development. The speaking statues lambasted the expense of papal building work, from Julius II's aggrandisement of St. Peter's to the Pamphili papacy's costly transformation of Piazza Navona. Yet they also criticised the meanness of popes who did not contribute to Rome's urban fabric: when the reformist Pius V installed a new latrine at the Vatican, pasquinades mocked this as the major building work of his reign. I will focus on this art-historical exchange between Rome's speaking statues, and projects for urban renovation, to uncover a complex and varied response to the architectural monuments of an absolutist papacy. Victoria Nelson Independent The New Allegory: Animating Images in Antenna Theater's Skin & Bones/Flesh & Blood' In Late Antiquity the notion of 'animating images' was taken literally; just as we humans are animated by God, Neoplatonic theurge­priests were thought to have the power to animate god-statues by drawing divine energy- down into them. Allegory, the aesthetic device of personifying ideas or qualities, is inextricably bound to this premodern worldview that regarded all living things in this world as simulacra drawing life from their corresponding forms in a higher invisible world. In medieval morality plays such as 'Everyman', allegorical characters functioned as walking, talking human simulacra of qualities or conditions such as Greed, Lust, and Death as they traversed phantasmic landscapes. A contemporary California theater group, Antenna Theater, reinvents the morality play in a site-based performance mixing animated objects and puppet-headed human characters. This piece, which follows a suburban matron Everywoman in her journey through life, death, and afterward, uses allegory, mime, multiple environments, and Walkman audio narrative commentary in aesthetically innovative ways. Illustrating the deep and unexpected connections between human-centric Expressionism and the old god-centric Neoplatonism, the complex reactions Antenna Theater's staging produces in its audiences as they walk through the Marin County Recycling Center are surprisingly not unlike those of the old allegory. Michael White York University Dionysus in Devon: Willi Soukop and the Place of the Mask in Modern Sculpture This paper takes as its central focus the experience of the sculptor Willi Soukop at Dartington Hall during the late 1930s. Arriving from Austria in 1934, Soukop found himself in the midst of the Dorothy and Leonard Elmhirst's artistic and educational experiment staffed by an extraordinary group of emigres. He soon found himself involved in making masks for Kurt Jooss's ballet troop and operatic productions led by the conductor Hans Oppenheim. I will explore the different levels of interaction between sculpture, dance and music fostered by this unique environment. The paper will also establish a wider context for Soukop's masks. The Jooss ballett was developed from the ideas of the pioneer dance reformer Rudolf von Laban, who also spent time in Dartington. In many ways the Dartington experience replayed the connections Laban had with the Zurich Dadaists during the First World War and comparisons will be made in particular with Marcel Janco's masks for the Cabaret Voltaire. Walter Gropius also visited Dartington several times and planned to construct a theatre there. I will therefore be considering the parallels with Bauhaus concepts of performance, notably the use of masks by Lothar Schreyer and Oskar Schlemmer. Melissa McQuillan Wimbledon School of Art Moving Pictures: Mercure' (1924) Picasso, Satie, Massine and Etienne de Beaumont 'Mercure', 1924, a collaboration by Pablo Picasso, Erik Satie, Leonide Massine, and the Count Etienne de Beaumont for the Count's Soirees de Paris, choreographed a sequence of moving tableaux that integrated animated images and mechanical figures with ballet dancers and drew upon tableaux vivants and the visual jokes of fairground photo booths for its poses plastiques. For Andre Breton it evoked 'toys for adults' providing him with a pretext for his claim upon Picasso 'as one of us'. Standing as an extreme formulation among a series of works proposing various transformations of dance theatre into staged pictures 'Mercure' tested the limits of painting and theatre, while its recourse to old-fashioned forms of spectacular distraction and its emphatic materiality counteracted the technology and spectatorship of cinema. This paper aims to position the work as a pictorial response both to performance and to a different kind of moving picture-silent cinema - a move intimately tied to operations of artistic emulation and rivalry among Picasso and fellow artists preoccupied by film and theatre during the early 1920s. Session 15: Performing Objects/Animating Images Edward Allington The Slade School of Fine Art Raymond Roussel and the Beginnings of Robot Art The myth of a machine which makes art or indeed is art, those devices which Harald Szeemann in his 1975 Stedelijk Museum show termed 'Bachelor Machines'. Szneemann's term is a reference to Duchamp's large glass, and Duchamp is rightly credited with introducing the notion of the painting machine to Modern Art as integral rather than separate as in automata or devices which assist the artist such as the Camera Lucida. The paper proposes that the extraordinary writing of Raymond Roussel and the chance attendance of Marcel Duchamp at a performance of Roussel's play 'Impressions d'Afrique' (1912) where, amongst theatrical creations such a zither played by earthworms, we find the first reference to a machine which paints by itself; Louise Monalescots painting machine, was the moment when the concept of robot art entered contemporary art where it remains to this day. References will be made to Tinguely's 'Metamatics' the various attempts to make cyborg art and remove the touch of the artist from the production and appreciation of art. Lynne Cooke The Dia Center, New York Robert Whitman One of the founders with Robert Rauschenberg and Billy Kluver of 'Experiments in Art and Technology' in New York in the mid-sixties, Robert Whitman was a pioneer in fusing the moving image into sculptural form, and in the evolution of multi-media performance art. In association with Allan Kaprow, Jim Dine, Lucas Samaras and others at Rutgers in the late 1950s he forged the context from which 'Happenings', interdisciplinary performance and expanded cinema burgeoned. Following his early forays with cheap disposable materials, and ephemeral productions, Whitman soon became involved with sophisticated and exploratory image technologies: his collaborations with a range of research scientists culminated in the Pepsi-Cola Pavilion for Expo '70 in Osaka, a landmark that has few equals in this field. Widely acclaimed also for his theatre pieces as well as for occasional multi-media installations in art-spaces in the sixties and seventies, Whitman today-is little known, his art works from that period now-lost or destroyed, his role marginalized and his reputation eclipsed. Based on extensive archival research, interviews with the artist, and reconstruction and refabrication of key works in his oeuvre for a forthcoming retrospective, this paper will excavate some of his pioneering innovations, situating them within the context of American art of that era. Helen Weston & Mervyn Heard University College, London Independent Throwing Light and Raising the Dead: Magic Lanterns for Articulating Images and Ideas in Revolutionary France Helen Weston's paper explores the ways in which magic lanterns were used in revolutionary France as metaphor to articulate contemporaneous notions of enlightenment, as propaganda instrument to highlight support for or opposition to the Terror and Directoire regimes and as scaremongering technique in line with the popularity for the Gothic novel at the turn of the eighteenth/nineteenth centuries. The degree to which academic artists at the time were working with a knowledge of effects of the magic lantern and the phantasmgoria will be addressed. This will be followed by a phantasmagoria performance by Professor Mervyn Heard with a demonstration of the role of the showman as performer and of the art and science of the magic lantern and explanation of its different parts and their functions. Andrew Hubbard Leeds Metropolitan University Look at Me When I'm Talking to You This paper will consider the highly developed reflexivity characteristic of some key post-war ventriloquist routines. Contrary to the assertion that media technologies were inhospitable locations for the survival of ventriloquist performance, I will emphasise an underlying affinity that enabled the dummy's self-referentiality to thrive and be further amplified. This phenomenon is especially discernible in the apparent paradox of radio ventriloquism. I will reference examples of the popular 1 950s BBC Radio series 'Educating Archie' which demonstrate the increased articulation of the dummy and its playful invoking of the dreamlife of the inanimate. It is proposed that such performances offer an opportunity to re-imagine the currency of enchantment within design and visual cultures, and is suggestive of more sceptical forms of enthralment. Stella Rollig O.K Center for Contemporary Art, Linz Look Who's Talking-. Speaking Objects in the Work of Asta Grating, Juan Munoz, and Tony Oursler When a contemporary artist creates talking puppets or figures, it is in many respects a provocation. There is the obvious relation to low art and puppet plays, games and entertainment. But more importantly, such an object is an insolent demonstration of the artwork's autonomy, a status that has become questioned, even dubious, thus - very often - voluntarily concealed. The pretentious self-complacency of an action taking place independently of the viewer denies contextual references. The skilfully constructed puppet refers to problematised categories such as authorship/creativity, fantasy and illusion, while its performance seems to reconstruct a lost homogenous narrative. This paper aims to define the common signifiers in objects by Groting, Munoz, and Oursler. While acknowledging the different approaches in these artists' work, a common question remains: What is it that makes us feel so uncomfortable with these figures? It is obviously something beyond the obstacle to positioning them within a contemporary art context. Looking at and listening to them, a question starts troubling us: 'Why can't we help being fascinated and seduced by their presence? Who is talking?' Asta Groting Berlin 'The Inner Voice' (1993-2003): Collaborations with Ventriloquists in Different Languages Since 1993 I have been producing (and directing) an ongoing project called 'The Inner Voice'. This involves using dialogues created by ventriloquists and using a dummy-made by me. These ventriloquists come from ah over the world and they are all speaking in their mother tongue. My talk will be about this project and the ways in which it investigates the mystery behind ventriloquism — an art that has a dubious cultural reputation. Ventriloquists have invented something very-unusual with their art: the dialogue of two voices from the same body. This dialogue (between the dummy and the ventriloquist) is a production of internal contradictions transferred to an external platform. This, the ventriloquist's stage, is itself a deceptive place, where our conventional understanding of physical theatre and where our illusion of the self-contained, oneness of personality is complicated by two or more voices. These 'Inner Voices' are produced by working with dialogues, in which the voices of dummy and ventriloquist are talking about life's difficult questions: such as how to lead the right life, about the right judgement and worth, about worry and life-style, about friendship, death, love and self-confidence. For example 'The Inner Voice/WORKING' is about the ambivalence of not wanting to work and not being allowed to work because of not having a job. The first video of the 'Inner Voice' came out 1993 with Pierre Bagee and, following this, 17 video-films and performances have been made. Since 1999 I have been an annual member of the 'Las Vegas Ventriloquist Convention' where around 500 ventriloquists from all over the world come to participate. Most of the 'Inner Voice' videos are produced there and during my talk I will show some videos of the 'Inner Voice'. Anna Dezeuze & Alessandra Santarelli Courtauld Institute of Art Photographing Spectator Participation in Helio Oiticia's 'Parangoles' 1964 In 1964 Brazilian artist Helio Oiticica started to make his Parangoles, colourful capes made out of jute and plastic bags, painted or printed fabrics and sometimes pockets filled with objects. They are meant to be worn by anybody, their complex textures revealed through the movements of the ' participant. Most existing photographs of these objects show Oiticica's friends from the Rio de Janeiro shantytown, Mangueira, dancing in the Parangoles, usually outdoors. The omnipresence of these photographs in discussions of Oiticica's work has obscured the fact that these works were created to be used and experienced by any person willing to participate. In this collaborative project, art historian Anna Dezeuze asked photographer Alessandra Santarelli to take photographs of a Parangole without having seen previous images of it. This led to a new discussion about the ways to convey the performative dimension of the Parangoles while providing an accurate Camilla Jackson & Rebecca Duclos Tne Photographers' Gallery Manchester University Spectral Presence: The Artist as Medium in Recent Works This joint paper considers the work of six contemporary practitioners whose work in different ways deals with unknown spectral forces. The conduit for these transcendental messages is either the artist's body or the viewer's body. Camilla Jackson will discuss the work of three contemporary video artists: Kristin Lucas (US), Susan McWilliam(IRL) and Mathilde ter Heijne (NL). All their work explores the role of artist as 'medium' in touch with other worlds -be it communicating with life beyond the grave; involuntarily receiving Extra Sensory messages, or enacting ritualistic rites of passage. Rebecca Duclos considers the work of Mike Nelson (UK), Janet Cardiff (CDN) and Andrew Hunter (CDN) who construct narratives of 'presences' which are not seen, but sensed or heard. Nelson's environments reveal traces of uncertain occupation; Hunter's multi-staged work develops spectral characters balanced between history and myth; while Cardiff s audio walks construct moving narratives that seem to physicalise the complex process of memory itself. Marquard Smith Birkbeck College Aesthetics, Erotics, Prosthetics: Matthew Barney, Aimee Mullins, James Gillingham, and Yours Truly Of late, our contemporary Western culture has, in part, become fascinated by the amputee and by what could be characterised as an erotics of prosthesis. These instances largely utilise the body of the female amputee as a site of eroticisation, and they do so specifically through her body as a prosthetic device. documentation of the object itself. As a white Why is it that, in a secular world Aimee Mullins in Matthew Barney's middle-class European, Anna Dezeuze centred on the individual, animation 'Cremaster 3', addressing her recent provided an altogether different kind of continues to fascinate the general public? appearances elsewhere, and tracing this performer of the Parangole from Oiticica's How do new technologies renew interest current moment in the emergence of afro-Brazilian friends. This paper will focus on in this imaginary character? And what amputee fetishism back to the turn of the the questions raised by this project both in basic aspects unite characters such as century. In tracing this backward terms of the photographic process and the Terminator and Karaguez, Hanuman and trajectory, I will end with photographs theoretical issues of performance, participation Mickey Mouse? related to the work of James Gillinghams and identity inherent to the meaning of of Chard, a maker of artificial limbs in Oiticica's Parangoles. The erotic, the prosthetic, and the aesthetic movies and special effects, video-games coincide. How, then, to account for this and thematic parks, and the work of contemporary fascination for the amputee several important contemporary artists. and her prosthetic body? In answering this question, I will engage with the figure of England from 1866. The particular cluster of images I shall be using are of female amputees modelling body and limb prosthesis in order to display the 'enabling' effects of this machinery. The point of this paper is not to investigate how the figure of the amputee has been used for commercial purposes in advertising and marketing, or for that matter within art practice, throughout the last century. While it may well do this in passing, the purpose of this visual cultural history is to draw attention to a particular discourse of surreptitious, unorthodox sexuality circling around these early photographs. In so doing, I hope to show how this earlier erotics of prosthetics allows us to account for the genealogy that was to come. Joan Baixas Independent, Barcelona Anima-Animality-Animation: Three Aspects of Animated Objects in Contemporary Art Based on his own experiences as a puppeteer and an artist, as well as his famous collaboration with Joan Miro in the 1970s, Baixas will address the archaic theme of puppetry and explore its implications in contemporary culture. Traditional cultures across the world have always been concerned with artificial beings which physically manifest the world of the imagination. Through puppets and masks religious legends and collective myths have found a visible, popular, playful, emotional and communal form of expression. In this traditional context, "animation", the simulation of life, corresponds to a magical desire drawn from a variety of contexts (ritual, healing, festive). In contemporary secular society, animation occupies an ever-increasing space, as well illustrated by animation Session 16: Articulations: Art Histoty and Archaeology in Asia and Africa Shane McCausland & Tania Tribe Department of Art & Archaeology, School of Oriental & African Studies, University of London This session addresses the theoretical basis for the study of art and archaeology in Asia and Africa, asking how the discipline of art history prepares us to understand non-Western forms of art and whether we must develop and theorise new categories emerging out of our engagement with the visual material and cultural realities in question. What dangers are posed by the dominance of a paradigm in which Western approaches are seen as inadequate? Does the urge to theorise non-Western culture actually express nothing so strongly as a continuing preoccupation with just those Western approaches? John T. Carpenter SOAS, University of London East Asian Calligraphy as Texts of Performance: Traces of the Brush in Various Media This paper is a meditation on an issue that cuts right to the core of the definition of calligraphy in the East Asian tradition. Is calligraphy an expressive art essentially-denatured (or made decorative) when transferred to non-paper media such as wood, stone, or ceramics, or reproduced in printed form? Or should it be considered the record of a performative art that takes into full consideration the challenge of the writing surface and means of reproduction? I shall investigate what happens when inscription occurs on surfaces such as wood, ceramics and stone that are either super-absorbent or non­absorbent, unresponsive to the brush in the characteristic ways, create distortions when written on curved or irregular surfaces, and then are subjected to the not always predictable effects of glazing and firing, or carving and printing. Part of the attraction of calligraphy on ceramics, for instance, is recognition of the calligrapher's partial surrender to the medium. Fluidity, ink tone, and absorption are more difficult, sometimes impossible, to control when writing on materials such as clay or wood. Yet, the aesthetic conventions involved still are derived from brushwriting on paper or silk. The discussion will range across Japanese calligraphic exemplars of various historical periods created in different media. Thomas Dowson University of Manchester An Archaeology of African Art The discourse of 'African Art' has been constructed around a specific class of objects, usually those that can/have circulated within a Western dealer/critic system. This legacy, still prevalent today when one considers the illegal trade in African antiquities, not only determines the epistemic value we afford African Art', but also ignores certain visual cultures of Africa. For instance, anything from images painted or engraved on rock surfaces (rock art) tens of thousands of years ago, to more recent expressions of Roman art in North Africa. This agenda has been largely, but not entirely driven by the discipline of Art History, with archaeology playing an insignificant and largely untheorised role. Perhaps this justifies Art History's position that much ancient art merely serves to "tantalise" archaeologists and fascinate students of aesthetic form. I draw on and develop what I have termed 'an archaeology of art', which examines and constructs the particular conditions for knowledge production of artistic traditions, to explore the specific contexts of certain visual cultures of Africa. This not only results in a more theorised and sensitive approach to the arts of Africa, but also challenges the dominant metanarrative that is "African art: the art of a continent". Candace M. Keller Indiana University Identity, Authorship, and Style in Bamako, Mali: Applying Local Social Theory to the Photographs of Seydou Keita and Malick Sidibe To illustrate how photographers and consumers have responded to socio-historical conditions in Mali, such as colonialism and nationalism, and to reveal the ways in which individuals utilize photographs as cultural resources to reinforce ideas of community, challenge authority, and invoke and embody change, my paper considers the work of two Malian photographers, Seydou Keita and Malick Sidibe, in terms of local theoretical concepts of fadenya and badenya, which encompass critical notions of individual and collective identity, agency, performance and reciprocity. Within the realm of material culture, badenya and fadenya have related aesthetic principles known as jayan, "structure and formal clarity," jako, "spice and decorative elements," ni, "goodness," and di, "tastiness" (Brink 1981). These terms are used to evaluate the success of the formal (badenya) and decorative (fadenya) elements of artworks (Amoldi 1995). Borrowing from Durkenheim's sociological perspective, I investigate how the terms, ideas and beliefs held within the social theory of fadenya and badenya are/can be applied to portrait photography in order to realize the ways in which "aesthetic preference responds to social structure and how social structure itself is an expression of an aesthetic preference (Fernandez 197 1: 357)." Stacey Pierson Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, University of London Teaching Chinese Art: Towards a History of a Discipline In 1933, students who wished to take degrees in art history in London went to the newly founded Courtauld Institute at the University of London where they could take a BA Honours in History of Art, focusing on Western Europe. Surprisingly, students there were also offered a BA Honours in .Archaeology at this time which focused on China. This unusual combination of degree subjects and disciplines was offered at the Courtauld for nearly 25 years but today there is no trace of it in the Institute's prospectus or indeed in its brief published history. It is therefore not widely known that the Courtauld Institute taught both Western and non-Western art as well as archaeology in its early history or that it was once possible to take a degree in the single subject of Chinese material culture. This aspect of the Institute's history raises some interesting questions about the development of art history teaching in the early twentieth century and the emergence of Chinese material culture as a subject for academic degrees. The changing perspectives on Chinese art that I aim to recount reflect the development of the academic discipline of art history in Britain and are neady summarised in the different names under which Chinese art has been taught at university. The first course was called Chinese Art and Archaeology. Then it became the China option on an archaeology degree when an institute for the teaching of Western art history was established. In the late 1950s, Chinese art was divorced from the Institute and in the 1960s was taught as an option on wider degrees in what was and still is sometimes called Chinese Studies. Today, we have come full circle, as, just as in 193 2, aspects of Chinese art are taught as part of degrees in Art History which now often include non-Western art as primary, rather than secondary, course options. The separate discipline of Chinese art has therefore disappeared but History of Art has expanded to include a wide range of cultures. As is often the case, the teaching of a subject reflects trends in disciplinary strategies which, as the teaching of Chinese art at the Courtauld shows, are not always progressive. My purpose in this paper twofold: firstly, to examine how and why Chinese art and archaeology came to be one of only two degree subjects offered at the first art history institute in Britain and secondly, to discuss the wider implications of the teaching of archaeology for the development of academic art history in this country and its parallel impact on the development of Chinese art as a discipline in its own right. Giles Tillotson SOAS The Jaipur Exhibition of 1883 The paper examines the exhibition of decorative and industrial arts held in Jaipur in 1883 under the patronage of Maharaja Sawai Madho Singh II. The exhibition brought together the work of artists and craftsmen from many regions of India, but with a focus on the neighbouring states of Rajasthan, and on the pupils of Jaipur's own recently established School of Art. It led to the establishment of a permanent museum of industrial arts in Jaipur (which still exists, and continues to hold many of the original exhibits). The first such exhibition to be held in an Indian state, the Jaipur exhibition coincided with the International Exhibition in Calcutta and preceded the Indian and Colonial Exhibition in London of 1886. Its nature and objectives are considered in the context of late colonial curating, by attending to the common ground between the Jaipur curator, Thomas Holbein Hendley, and art educators in British India such as John Lockwood Kipling. But the paper also argues that the British perspective alone is inadequate to explain it fully. The now well-established view of such events ­that they projected a distinctively colonial perception of Indian tradition, arts and even society - tends to overlook the agency and motives of the Indian participants. In the case of the Jaipur exhibition there survive very full records of the participating artists, and the paper explores their aims and achievements. It also examines the role of the Jaipur court and of the local audience, to suggest that the Jaipur exhibition can be interpreted as an instrument intended to change regional perceptions of Rajput identity and of the Jaipur State. Tania C Tribe SOAS Body, Space and Narrative in Late Antique Egypt Husserl considered the human body to be the zero-point of experience, the very basis of what it means to be human; while Merleau-Ponty asserted that the body is our general medium for having a world at all. Moving away from the naturalistic visual idiom of Hellenised mummy portraits and sculptural groups, the icons and cycles of monastic wall-paintings executed in Egypt during the Late Antique period depicted rows of hieratic saints and portraits of monastic leaders such as Abraham, Bishop of Hermonthis and superior of the Monastery of Saint Phoibammon, near Luxor (d. 620). They visually constructed an ideal ascetic body that transformed individual differences into schematic signifiers of asceticism or martyrdom. Side by side with Pharaonic concepts, beliefs and practices (which remained meaningful until at least the fifth century AD) and the Biblical treatment of personhood as a single body-soul unity, a contrasting attitude towards the human body dominated the first centuries of Christianity in Egypt, based on the strong Platonizing approach proposed by, among others, Origen and Clement of Alexandria, and which marginalised the body. As Wayne A. Meeks has pointed out in The Origins of Christian Morality, however, we cannot really say to what extent ordinary people shared the asceticism that so many Christians and pagan intellectuals affected during the period in question. But it seems likely that, as in modern times, experiences of, and discourses about, body, matter, the senses, feelings and emotions will have been far more complex and varied than any rigid notions of an absolute body-soul dualism. Denying such dualism, some "curiously dissonant" erotic notes, in Wayne Meeks's words, find their way into an early work like the Sentences of Sextus (generally dated to the second century CE), which was favoured by the ancient Egyptian church, providing some evidence of an "uneasy compromise" of the ascetic impulse in the practical life of ordinary Christians. Looking at paintings, sculptures and textiles, as well as written sources, I examine the role played by embodiment and corporeality — seen as a bodily being which is experienced through spatial, motor and perceptive functions, like speech, language, gesture, visuality, etc — in the complex, multi-cultural and often syncretic construction of selfhood in Late Antique Christian Egypt, asking also how these phenomenological categories may have been understood at the time. Session 17: Articulating Value: Object, Market, Museum Abigail Harrison Moore University of Leeds Mark Westgarth University of Southampton This session will examine value creation and the articulation between the object, the academic discourse (decorative art history/material culture), the market and the museum. The value of objects is created by a circular system, meaningful and sensible in its own terms. Bound up in this are moral, intellectual and social attitudes which discriminate between objects, the whole operating as a self perpetuating system of power, in which, in material terms, the authentic pieces are elevated and the inauthentic pieces depressed. When the same experts are working with or as dealers, questions must be raised regarding the construction of the market. This has been brought to light in recent times through the media focus on court cases involving major international auction houses. As a self-perpetuating articulation, any interruption, whether it be to question or to accuse, causes an immediate breakdown of value. The museum, from its moment of inception, has been more than a mere historical object. It has manufactured an image of history. By collecting artefacts from the past, the museum gives shape to history. The objects are reinscribed into a socially meaningful language. Museums are as much in the business of trading art, objects and history as the antique shop and the auction house. The objects and the past are commodities, open to systems of valuation and devaluation under the cover of historical rationality. This session will focus on material culture in order to examine how objects can be read in relation to the articulation between the discourse, the museum and the market. Mark Westgarth Southampton University Selling-Knowledge: Exhibitions. Antique Dealers and an Evolution of Decorative Art History The modern museum is a place where the historical object elides its explicit status as Commodity whilst simultaneously acting as intellectual 'prop' in the systems of value of the collecting economy. In a sleight of hand performance, the object in the modern museum is de-priced (although never de­valued) and presented exclusively as a bearer of historical knowledge. As precursors to the modern museum, the nineteenth-century 'Museum of Antiquities' exhibition held in Leeds in 1843 and the exhibition of 'Specimens of Ancient Cabinet-work' at Gore House in London held in 1853, present us with examples of didactic performances which appear to conflate the idea of the historical object as bearer of historical knowledge and the historical object as Commodity. Both exhibitions evidenced the emergence of the .Antique & Curiosity Dealer as a specific cultural identity, with displays of objects by dealers alongside those loaned by-collectors, and raise questions concerning the symbiosis between the commercial antiques trade and the evolution of taxonomies within decorative art history. The rapid expansion of these new collecting practices, and the lack of any substantive critical framework under which they evolved leads one to question the extent to which the resultant taxonomies present us with economically inspired categories of legitimate objects. Simon Knell Leicester University Collecting for the Museum of Hidden Agendas The socio-political context of the early nineteenth-century museum gave objects meanings which extended far beyond those notions of 'types' and 'series' which suggests to us that we are dealing with a society in search of 'ordered knowledge'. In the 1820s, the museum was not a cathedral of science but a local parliament where the political neutrality of supposedly 'disinterested' science was manipulated for social ends. Set in a time when the science of geology left its speculative beginnings and entered a world of hard facts, but yet never strayed too far from the poetic or from becoming one of the most popular of intellectual entertainments, the new museums established a curious relationship with things of the deep past, particularly fossils. Driven by this new and exciting science, there was an explosion in the fossil market, and in fossil collecting and gift giving, to the extent that every level of society became engaged in this new 'culture of geology'. This social mix, and the different agendas of participants, became as critical to the establishment of a rigorous science as any intellectual idea. However, the market place also places controls on intellectual practices and by the 1840s geology was putting in place professional rules of engagement which would move it into a less self-interested world. Jane Pavitt University of Brighton Commerce and Curatorship: The Collection and Exhibition of Contemporary Goods at the V&A, 1900-now Since its inception, the Victoria and Albert Museum has espoused an active relationship to contemporary design and decorative arts, although in practice this attitude has been marred by uncertainty about the museum's role as an advocate of the new. Throughout the twentieth century, the presence of contemporary- objects in the museum aroused considerable anxiety, and prompted revealing discussions on the nature of value, and the difficulty of reconciling the status of 'art' with that of 'commerce'. Taking its lead from the recommendation of 1908 that 'the museum is not, and never can be, a museum of commercial products', the V&A tried to avoid the charge of commercial endorsement by generally not acquiring objects of less than 5 0 years of age. However, the museum remained a presence (both active and passive) in British debates about the promotion of modern design. This paper will examine the V&A's role in these debates, looking in particular at the problematic idea of museum objects and their commodity status. Charting responses to this issue throughout the last century, it will also consider the museum's current re­affirmation of its role as an institution of contemporary objects and ideas. Jonathan Vickery Warwick University Art and its Organisations: The Institutionalisation of Aesthetic Value What our public art institutions exhibit aie henceforth considered de jure 'exemplary works of art' which (i) create the framework of further practice for the current or next generation of practitioners (ii) engender attitudes, reference points, conceptions or frameworks of understanding which maintain a determining impact on the nature of (a) the pricing system of the private art market, (b) the museums' acquisition policy, (c) the art education system, and (d) the subjects of art criticism and art historical narratives; and so on. In recognition of the complex institutional means by which aesthetic value is constructed, the quasi-sociological term 'institution of art' has become common in professional art criticism since the late 1970s. The 'institution' denotes a value-system, whereas the term 'art world' usually stands as its administrative structure. This paper will outline a framework for understanding the relation between the two. I will argue that 'institutionalisation' has become the most pressing, if ignored, problem for art professionals today, and I will do so through a critique of Pierre Bourdieu's sociology of the art world. Valerie Mainz Leeds University Framing the French Revolution In 1978, Francois Furet identified the subject of the French Revolution as a heavily loaded one in French history. The decision to open the Museum of the French Revolution in 1984 has to be considered in the light of the Bicentennial celebrations of 1989 and the coming to terms of the French nation with its past. It is, after all, rare that a decision is made to open a museum without the existence of any collection. The problems of having a museum without a collection were, indeed, raised at the outset of the project. It was suggested, for instance, that modern technologies should be used for virtual reality displays. Yet the Museum of the French Revolution exists in the Chateau of Vizille today as a major collection of paintings and sculpture and its museological focus is as much on fine art and its heritage as it is on the history and historiography of the period. This paper will examine how this collection was put together, its problematic although ultimately successful and continuing evolution and the tensions that exist between the theme of the museum and the objects that now belong there. Jenny Tennant Jackson Leeds University F.C.U.K.: The Wallace Collection Between Gallery and Country House, between Rococo and Romanticism, between the illegitimate and the legitimate, between bourgeois and aristocratic, between French and English, between....and so on. That is not enough. The aim of this paper is not to articulate clearly on what, exactly, the Wallace Collection means to a viewing public, not to directly address the values it espouses, though I have no doubt we will come to it. On the contrary, I am interested in how it manoeuvres and negotiates avoiding being articulated. Dis-jointed as a Collection, I shall try to make sense of its arrogance and opulence in the face of morality and respect, its courtly campness, it's mirroring of French ancien regime, its bizarre anarchy and legitimation which defies articulation. Amongst the objects and discourse is a French connection of fashion cited in the London house. In quotation, as it were, it is a 'French Kiss' of a collection. Theoretically, then, it is open to both a Foucauldian archaeology and an ideological critique, placed in a Baudelairian allegory of mid nineteenth-century Paris. And F.C.U.K? The discourse of the market, museum and object for the purpose of being (not quite) haute monde. Malcolm Gee Northumbria University The Art Market and the Public Art Gallery in France and Germany 1918-1933: Nationalism, Internationalism, Commerce, and Contemporary Art This paper analyses and compares the history of engagement with contemporary art by public institutions in France and Germany in the interwar period, and compares the ways in which the art market influenced policies and perceptions in each case. In France, innovative modern art was very efficiently promoted on the market but received minimum recognition from the state before the 1930s. When a project for a Museum of Modern Art was finally realised, the model of contemporary art it subscribed to was, effectively, that determined by the market over the previous thirty years. In Germany during the period of the Weimar Republic the commitment of 'progressive' museum directors led to several museums collections being, if anything, ahead of the art market in their recognition of new trends in modern art, but these policies were often highly controversial. In Berlin the displays at the National Gallery maintained a sometimes uneasy balance between a traditional nationalist reading of German art and competing strands of modernism, each of which had commercial backers. Ludwig Justi kept aloof from the circle of the Cassirer Gallery, but was nonetheless sidelined after 1933 for his supposed complicity with the decadent forces of the international art market. Session 18: Articulating The New: Art Museums, New Technologies And New Media Maria Brown University of Auckland Elfriede Dreyer University of South Africa Recent debates about art museums have focused on the way they not only reflect, but also contribute to shape the culture(s) in which they are immersed. One aspect of museums, particularly relevant in the context of these debates, is their functioning as mass communicators with significant definitional power. If we start from the premise that cultural circulation and social exchange are influenced by the technical condition and the material form of the media, then, it seems timely to invite reflection on the opportunities and the risks inherent in the use of new technologies in art museums. This strand will explore two related areas: the use of new technologies and media to interpret art and the challenge for museums to interpret works in new media meaningfully. Hannah Lewi Curtin University of Technology .Western Australia A Day Out at The Hyper-Museum? The proposed paper questions the museum institution past and present through a discussion of a virtual museum recently published as the CD-Rom Visualising the Architecture of Federation. From a three-dimensional collage of archival and contemporary images, surfaces, maps, sounds and text, a hyper-museum has been created that exhibits the architecture and places typical of the period of national Federation in Australia between 1890 and 1910. From this example, the paper will critically reflect upon multimedia as a means of creating scholarly histories that are highly spatial, visual and aural, and that challenge some of the limitations of traditional linear texts or conventional museum exhibitions. The paper seeks to examine how the traditional museum differs from, and is called into question through, digital or hyper institutions. For example, like conventional exhibitions, digital exhibitionary techniques are visually and spatially organised, and driven by the viewer, yet distil only the visual and pedagogical functions from the museum experience. Given this loss of the socialising and nationing functions of the museum, and the inevitable eclipsing of bodily experience in favour of the purely visual and cognitive, is the creation of a hyper-museum possible? How is the value of 'real' artefacts altered when digitised and simulated in the hyper-museum, and what are the effects when their display is removed from the status of the conventional museum setting? Tina Fiske University of Glasgow Taking Stock: British Regional Fine Art Collections and Issues in the Acquisition of Film and Video Works My paper focuses on the question of acquisition of new media works into public permanent fine art collections in Britain: increasingly and encouragingly, both national and regionally based British public collections are acquiring new media works, most particularly at this stage video and film work. I focus on the issues that acquiring such works present for regionally-based collections in particular. Tate collection acquired its first video works in 1974 (Gilbert & George), for regionally based public collections, such acquisitions are more recent and significantly influenced on what is possible in terms of long-term care and continued display. This can lead museums such as Southampton City Art Gallery or Leeds City Art Gallery to form quite specific acquisition policies: Where one museum will acquire video work that is displayed on a monitor, another will acquire only video works that are projected. What about films onl6mm , and the question of transference to Digital format. Such works present the following questions: Does the hardware constitute a sculptural element of the work? What about replaceability? Is brand or look of monitor important? Can a work be re­ formatted, digitized? For regionally-based collections, these questions are vital and often decisive in whether or not to pursue an acquisition. I will consider as case- studies selected acquisitions of video and film works by public fine art collections based in Southampton, Leeds, Eastbourne and Aberdeen. Emilie Gordenker Antenna Audio & Cristiano Bianchi keepthinking & Paul Coldwell Camberwell College of Arts Digital Collaboration: Building a Web-based Kiosk for the Victoria & Albert Museum Digital Responses, an exhibition at the Victoria & Albert Museum (May 2002-March 2003), resulted in an unusually productive collaboration between a museum, an artist/curator, a software provider and a design company. The conception and implementation of a web-based kiosk for the exhibition followed curatorial objectives, but also gave shape and direction to the show and to the artists' projects. This paper provides a brief background to the exhibition; explains the symbiotic relationship between museum, curator and designers; and shows the final result of the collaboration. Digital Responses presents a series of new works, each created in response to objects and spaces in the V&A, by artists who use digital media in their creative process. Gallery Systems, a company pro\iding software and related services to museums, created the exhibition kiosk (and micro-website) with designs by keepthinking. Some ideas initially suggested by Gallery Systems/keepthinking as organising principles for the kiosk - such as the themes uniting the work and an "artpath", a route through the museum, devised by the artists to flag works or ideas relevant to their works — were embraced by the artists and the curator, and ultimately had a fundamental impact on the content and display of the physical exhibition. Malcolm Ferris. Centre for Research in Electronic Art & Communication, The University of Hertfordshire Performing Histories: Visitors as Characters in Interactive Exhibition Media Using the NMPFT project as a case study the paper will explore the notion of the post-cinematic and the rhetoric of immersion and interactivity, performance and participation in "interactive" media spaces. The NMPFT's collections reveal a history moving from still image, to image combined with time through framed movement. One continuation of this vector, located in digital interactive audio-visual media, is the automation of narrative and event producing a 'database cinema' aesthetic. Another is the extension of time, movement and image beyond the frame, suggesting that the 'object' (and its aesthetic effect) is, at one level, the technology as revealed in its performative dimensions. The performing characters are of course, the visitors themselves, represented within the frame of the interaction cycles. Each interactive installation functions as an experiential artefact capable of engaging imaginative, cognitive, and playful modalities - as well as a visual aesthetic dimension. In short, the artworks act as a form of multi-levelled information system addressing differing forms of visitor behaviour and need. Whereas most commercial interfaces are about creating messages of consistent meaning, frequently our intention was to create a certain level of ambiguity, even dissonance, in order to provoke a critical engagement. Holly Rarick Witchey Cleveland Museum of Art Are Art Museums Serving their Targeted Audiences? Changing Audiences and Changing Technologies Children and teenagers, 18-3 5 year olds, minorities, the disabled - every group on this list is considered an important audience by art museums. What are we doing to serve them? What benefits have accrued after years of educational and cognitive theory and with the advent of new tools and technologies? Art museums have reached all new highs (and lows) in their approaches to underserved communities. This paper looks beyond our best intentions to actual outcomes. What does the content we choose to display on the web reveal about our commitment to certain audiences? How do special audiences discern the differences between commitment and special-project pandering? Have we failed audiences by judging our best efforts according to low standards? Few art museums have the money, staff, skill-sets to serve all these special targeted audiences effectively. What best practices guidelines exist outside of the museum field for serving children, minorities, and the disabled on the web? Improved content, decreased legal liability, greater audience reach-these are just a few of the benefits that result when our web sites are made more accessible. This paper charts where art museums have been and where they are going in terms of four targeted audiences: children, 18-35 year olds, minorities, and the disabled. Maria Brown University of Auckland Technology and the Visitor's Experience in an Art Exhibition: A Case Study The Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa (MNZTPT) aims to represent New Zealand's cultures and environment. Since its opening in 1998, it has faced mixed evaluation. It has been praised for number of visitors it has attracted, but it has also been the target of strong criticism for its approach to the visual arts. The MNZTPT opened with two permanent art exhibitions, Mana Whenua and Parade. The former successfully aestheticised the material culture of the country's indigenous people and received much praise, while the latter relied on technology currently associated with entertainment to contextualise the art of the British settlers, provoking such discontent that it was closed in May 2001. In this paper I concentrate on the very strong reactions to Parade, the exhibition that stirred most of the debates surrounding this new national museum. In particular, I examine the use of electronic technology both as a means to interpret objects and as an attempt to reach a wide audience. I argue that the confusion and outrage expressed by many visitors to this exhibition were related to the poor information content of the exhibits. This case illustrates how in spite of its entertaining features, the deployment of technology is not enough to provide an enriching experience of works art. It is certainly not a substitute for well-thought, innovative interpretations. \ Session 19: An Ocean of Exchange: Colonialism, Trade and Architecture in the Indian Ocean Basin, 1800-1930 Ronald W. Hawker Zayed University, Dubai Colonisation in the Indian Ocean basin beginning in the seventeenth century reinvigorated old trade partnerships and instituted new ones. In this context of accelerated commerce, new architectural forms were stimulated through the trade of both materials and ideas. Although marginalised in conventional discussions of Islamic, South Asian and African architecture, the influx of wealth that accompanied the pacification and colonisation of the region stimulated urban growth in coastal communities. This created architectural styles that combine Gulf Arab, Persian, South Asian and African forms in a number of variations. How trade created cross-cultural influences in the development of regional architecture is important from a variety of perspectives. First, the linkage between the different parts of the Indian Ocean trade zone has rarely served as the primary focus of investigation. Second, many historic buildings from this period are currently seen as the last remnants of architecture pre-dating modernism and are the target of conservation efforts. Third, the way in which these different regional forms and materials were synthesised describes the complex creative effects of colonialism. Rather than simply imposing new architectural orders with their origins in the imperial centre, colonialism in the Indian Ocean set up a regional web of cross-cultural exchange that was interpreted and realised differently at each point of connection. This session investigates both the mechanisms and results of this exchange. Ronald W. Hawker Zayed University, Dubai From Bombay to Basra: Nineteenth Century Trade and Architectural Exchange in the Arabian Gulf This paper reviews British commercial and political activities in the Arabian Gulf in the last half of the nineteenth century as a means of illuminating the social context for the development of a pan-Gulf style of architecture. In particular, I look at how the British imposition of treaties aimed at pacifying the Arab tribes and containing Qajari Iran allowed for the expansion of transportation and communications infrastructures in the Gulf and created a secure corridor of trade between Basra in Ottoman-controlled southern Iraq with Bombay (Mumbai) in British India. Consequently, architectural features from both the upper and lower Gulf regions and between Arab and Iranian littorals were adopted and synthesised into a pan-Gulf style by the beginning of the twentieth century. I focus specifically on the growth of domestic buildings associated with the merchant class between 1890 and 1920 and comment on how social conditions stimulated by British colonial activities facilitated this synthesis in architectural style. The features of this style are identified and illustrated with examples from historic towns and buildings in the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain and Iran. I also comment on the effects of trade with British India, particularly the import of standardised wooden frames and other features, on the region as a whole. Daniel Hull & Stephen Rowland York University The Pearl Trade in Abu Dhabi Emirate Pearl fishing has been conducted in Abu Dhabi for millennia. During the Late Islamic period, and especially in the eighteenth, nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it was an important part of the economy, and has left us with a significant historical and archaeological legacy. The importance of the pearl trade is dramatically illustrated by the wide-ranging socio-economic effects of its collapse in the late 1930s. The nature of the evidence for the pearl trade during the Late Islamic period is revealing. With one important exception, the range and extent of pearling activity evidenced by material culture suggests that the harvesting and collection of pearls took place, but rarely their economic consumption. It is argued through an archaeological perspective, that although the pearl trade is expressed as a part of local identity through architectural expression today, this traditionally almost never took place. Abu Dhabi, despite its previously abundant pearl resources, was essentially a collection economy, with the majority of the resulting wealth channelled through merchants elsewhere in the Gulf and Indian Ocean. This paper seeks to give an overview of the archaeological evidence to date, along with some tentative conclusions about how this collection economy operated. Derek Kennet University of Durham The Development of Military Architecture in the Northern Oman Peninsula. This paper will review the development of defensive architecture in the northern Oman Peninsula from the Bronze age through to the twentieth century. concentrating on developments in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It wil l attempt to define a 'local' tradition, based on recurring themes throughout this long historical period, and an 'imported' technology, based on parallels wit h other areas. Most significantly it wil l examine the far-reaching developments that happened in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries with the arrival of Indian and European military technology and look at how these new ideas were incorporated into the local social structure. Omid Rouhani Zayed University, Dubai The Bastakia Merchants and their Influence on Dubai This paper reviews the history of the migration of merchants from the southern coastal towns of the Bastak region in the Iranian province of Hormozgan to the northern shores of the old Trucial States, or the modern United Arab Emirates, during the first half of the twentieth century. By studying the merchant roots of the Bastaks, their culture and their reasons for immigrating across the Arabian Gulf, I contribute to an understanding of their influence on the Gulf generally, and on the city of Dubai specifically, in social, cultural, and economic terms. While their architectural influence is the best documented, I also comment on their influence in the arenas of religion, art, fashion, food and music. Session 20: Race and the Enlightenment David Bindman University College London Angela Rosenthal Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, USA This session offers diverse perspectives on the role of the visual in shaping ideas of human variety, and cultural and racial difference. Papers will address such topics as colour and human complexion ('whiteness' as well as 'blackness'), art and the teleology of race, the representation of racialized Europeans and non-Europeans, methodologies applied to the Enlightenment and its 'invention' of race, and fictions of Empire, in the period C.1700-C.1870. The session will also include testimony by a renowned contemporary artist, whose work will shed light on the shadows of Enlightenment. Eva Frojmovic Centre for Jewish Studies, University of Leeds Savage Jews? Picart's 'Circumcision' in 'Ceremonies et Coutumes Religieuses des tous les Peuples du Monde' (Amsterdam 1723) The paper will address the way in which Jewish difference is encoded in one of the foundational works of the Enlightenment's critique of religious ritual. The multi­volume work, published in Amsterdam in 1723, was illustrated by the foremost refugee French engraver, Bernard Picart. The paper will focus on one engraving, "Circumcision in a Portuguese Household". I will reconsider the recent evaluation by Richard Cohen (in "Jewish Icons"), according to which Picart's print is a fundamentally objective and hence 'friendly' representation. I will re-evaluate the context of this image within the illustration cycle and the text, and offer a re-reading of the image in order to propose that Picart's Circumcision, notwithstanding its 'realism', subtly encodes both anti-Jewish and anti­feminine positions present in radical Enlightenment thought. I will finally argue that both anti-Jewish positions (ritualism, carnality, backwardness and superstition) and anti-feminine (deficiency of reason, idle curiosity) gloss each other here in a play of visual wit. Geoff Quilley National Maritime Museum, Greenwich A Breed Apart: Race and the Visualisation of the Eighteenth-Century Sailor This paper focuses on artists such as James Gillray and Thomas Rowlandson and their visual stereotyping of sailors through caricature. It using the highly problematic social category of sailors as a case study for questioning issues of racial categorisation and theorisation. Agnes Lugo-Ortiz Dartmouth College, USA Bordering the Enlightenment: Portraiture and the Beginnings of the Slaveholding Plantation System in Cuba While the dawn of the nineteenth century signalled for the Spanish-American continent the beginning of its violent separation from the Spanish monarchy and its tumultuous division into independent nation-states, the island counterparts of the four-hundred-year empire took a divergent path. In Cuba and Puerto Rico, under the modernising zeal of Spanish enlightened despotism, the structures of colonial domination solidified and helped to foster the conditions for the emergence not of a national elite but of a proto-modern colonial elite loyal to the metropolis primarily, albeit not exclusively, by virtue of economic interests. In the case of Cuba, the consolidation of that elite was linked to the development of a slaveholding sugar plantation economy, the roots of which can be found in the small-scale, artisanal, and patriarchal sugar estate that flourished on the island during mid-eighteenth century. During those formative stages, the emergent plantocracy attempted an uneasy appropriation of the intellectual predicaments of an elusively defined "Enlightenment" to articulate its cultural and political desires and to symbolically authorise its existence as a subject of power. This historical juncture, characterised by such intense efforts at class­self-fashioning, also marks the beginning of the practice of visual portraiture on the island. The first large-scale formal oil portrait we know of in Cuba dates precisely from this period. Painted in 1766 by Nicolas de la Escalera, the "Retrato de la Familia del Conde Bayona" represents the family of one of the most prominent aristocratic slaveholders of that era. Moreover, in a rather anomalous gesture in the history of Cuban portraiture, this painting is one of only two known that includes a representation of a slave within a patrician family composition (a dignified one, at that). The aim of this paper is to underscore the specificity of the power and ideological dynamics that rendered the slave representable during such an early moment in the development of the Cuban plantation system and of the plantocracy's self-fashioning, as well as to investigate the particular character and meanings of that representation. What is at stake? What were the specific material and ideological/symbolic negotiations that underlay the construction of such an image? What were its possible political and philosophical implications for a cultural zone that could be understood as residing at the borders of the Enlightenment? Judith Jackson Fossett University of Southern California Silhouettes, Race and the Visual Culture of Antislavery This paper addresses the prevailing visual language around self-representation in European culture immediately following the Enlightenment by considering both the popularity of the black-profile miniature portraiture and the visual culture of the British anti-slavery movement. What might be some of the practical results in Europe and the U.S. of the wide proliferation of Enlightenment notions of observation, vision and knowledge in the eighteenth and early-nineteenth centuries? I argue that the ubiquitous silhouette and the Josiah Wedgwood antislavery emblem of the kneeling slave, images which both refer directly to the figure of the shadow, should be viewed as allied cultural phenomena borne of similar modes of production and representation. Using the silhouette as a kind of visual and cultural barometer reveals the predominance of the figure of the shadow, as both image and trope. The geographic transit in intellectual notions via the circum-Atlantic economy in this period reached the bourgeois parlours of Europe and the U.S. both in the decorative form of the silhouette as well as through the political and graphic visual display of the Atlantic slave trade. Session 20: Race and the Enlightenment Julie Roberts Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand Black Looks and the White Gaze: Augustus Earie and the Antipodean Other The peripatetic English artist, Augustus Earle (1793-1838) encountered Australia and New Zealand in the 1820s and '30s, in the early stages of European settlement. When he wrote of the New Zealand Maori, he framed them as living embodiments of the noble savage - 'cast in beauty's perfect mould'. In contrast, the Australian Aborigines were confirmation of Darwin's emerging theories of evolution - '...the last link in the great chain of existence which unites man with the monkey'. His writing reflects his conventional Enlightenment values of human endeavour and beauty. In contrast his paintings are subde explorations of rdationships between Europeans and Aborigines, Europeans and Maori. These works, while stimulating contradictory readings, are indisputably complex, multi-layered representations of ambivalent relationships. Earle's visual images reveal the challenge to a stable white identity presented by the European encounter with the Antipodean Other. In his works both "native" and European look, their respective gazes encompassing each other and the land they both lay claim to. These looks reinforce and challenge notions of race, rights, identity and belongingness. Focusing on the Australian and New Zealand works, this paper will explore Earle's expositions of interracial Antipodean encounters in the late Enlightenment period. Maud Suiter Artist, Curator, Poet, Playwright, Edinburgh Sugar is Sweet Internationally acclaimed artist Maud Suiter will present some of her recent work. Through the languages of photography, video, mixed media installation, performance and poetry, Maud Suiter removes tainted, visible layers to reveal historical presences and voices, which have been erased, obscured, and distorted. Her work taps into central concerns of modern culture and politics, confronting her audiences with the challenge to reflect on the persistency of Empire ('Service to Empire, 2003 ), the meaning and authority of language ('Speak English', in collaboration with artist Lubaina Himid, The Glasgow School of Art, 2002), as well as the cultural and social power of African objects ('Proverbs for Adowoa', 1993, 2003), and the African presence in Western culture ('JEANNE. A MELODRAMA'; Scottish National Portrait Gallery Edinburgh, May-August 2003). Maud Suiter's presentation "Sugar is Sweet" mixes irony and laughter to confront the shadows of Enlightenment. Deborah Cherry University of Sussex Hauntings at the Heart of Empire: Trafalgar Square Now and Then This paper considers the contested spaces and contested histories of Trafalgar Square in central London. Commissions for new sculptures for the fourth plinth have been accompanied by proposals for public monuments to living figures, such as Nelson Mandela, and to slavery. Debates also centred on the nineteenth-century monuments of figures of imperial history and rule. A focus for controversy when installed, more recent debates about these sculptures have dwelt on the appropriateness of an imperial past in a "post-colonial" present, and their significance in the re-making of public space at the heart of the British capital. Drawing on the writings of Pierre Nora and Zeynep Celik allows for an interpretation of Trafalgar Square as a place of memory and history, opening up an investigation of the square's potential for meaning for its fragmentary communities. Session 21: The Visual Narrative Lorettann D. Gascard Franklin Pierce College, USA The facility of images and objects to tell stories is evident across periods. Narratives have been presented in the forms of continuous frieze, compartmentalized images, cycles, and in the presence and absence of text. Narrative content has ranged from mythological and heroic themes to the modest parable and the lighthearted cartoon. The advent of film with its "unique and specific possibilities", defined by Panofsky "as (the) dynamization of space, and accordingly, the spatialization of time," appeared to lengthen the reach of the narrative potential of images. Recent developments in digitizing images and sequencing hold further potential of developing the visible story. This session aims to examine visual narration, by considering paradigmatic relationships between narrative elements in traditional, modern and post-modern forms; the interdependence (and possible independence) of specific narrative devices which have occurred in visual art forms; and the similar and contrasting conceptual underpinnings between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The session begins with a consideration of storytelling strategies, and then moves to explore how the known narration, i.e., a myth, is "re-presented." The inquiry turns to the subversion and possible recreation of religions themes/narratives and an uncovering of an underlying political metaphor framed in a narrative ballad. Continuing with this investigation of the visual narrative as a mask, the narrative is exposed as a guise of the erotic message. The role of the narrative is then shifted out of the 'shadows' and into modernity as the session deals with the conundrum of the filmic narrative, and this, it is hoped will lead the discussion back to questions of storytelling strategies. This session explores the element of narration as a continuous, yet formally and conceptually transmutable thread and as such transcending period-specific elements. Nina Lubbren Anglia Polytechnic University, England Tales of Mystery and Imagination: Storytelling Strategies of European Painting, 1860-1900 Unlike novels and films, pictures tell stories in space; that is, images must visualize narrative time structures within the space of a static composition. This paper investigates how European history and genre paintings between 18 60 and 1900 accomplished the task of pictorial narration. It argues that late nineteenth-century, narrative paintings elaborated ingenious new strategies for purely pictorial storytelling, and that the rhetorical devices adopted by artists engage with other contemporary ways of reading dramatic tales, in particular plays, mystery novels and popular history books. The paper explores how paintings from a range of countries (Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spain) and by a range of artists (Gerome, Pradilla, Laurens, Defregger, Miola, Makovsky, Orchardson) invited viewers to weave their own tales in response to clues found in the picture and how critics wrote about such images in terms of narrative clarity and imagination. Finally, the paper asks how and why-mainstream narrative modes of reading subject-pictures changed towards the close of the century to formalist and resolutely anti-narrative interpretive models -a shift that was adumbrated by increasingly 'interior' modes of storytelling during the 1 870s and 80s. Etolia Ekaterini Martinis University of Essex, England The Sphinx in Continental Symbolist Painting 1864-1914. The Metamorphosis of a Myth and its 'Rites of Passage' This paper converges on the examination of the ways in which the mythological monstrous Sphinx is represented by continental Symbolist painting. It aggregates an attempt to classify and critically abridge the available material in its diversity, in order to justify the culmination of the theme's diachronic popularity during the period in question. By tracing the relations of Symbolist iconographic variants to the antique and Renaissance visual and textual tradition, the paper aims at elucidating the way in which the myth affects articulation of the visual narrative within the aesthetic framework of French and German fin-de-siecle idealism. The Sphinx, either Egyptian or Greek, figures importantly in nineteenth century scholarly myelographies (Creuzer, Bachofen, Guigniaut, Breal, Burckhardt, Nietzsche), texts related to occultism and mysticism (Schure's The Great Initiates, Peladan's Le Sphinx), French and German literature (Baudelaire, Flaubert, Heine). The content of these sources has tinged continental Symbolist painting of the 1864-1914 period. This paper will look at the cases of Gustave Moreau, Odilon Redon, Fernand Khnopff, Jan Toorop, Franz von Stuck and Gustav Klimt in order to pinpoint patterns of continuity, disruption and alteration of the way tradition and its exegesis are articulated within the visual narrative of the 1864-1914 period. Its main line of argument is that the Sphinx in the work of the aforementioned artists' relies on the nineteenth century context of mythological, mystical and occult study, and is influenced by its transcription of the classical and post-classical prototypes, both literary and pictorial. Crucial elements of the Symbolist aesthetics evolve around the depiction and are in a continuous dialectic discourse with the above sources. Colin Cruise Staffordshire University, England Aesthetic Narratives: Quoting the Masters in Late Nineteenth Century British Painting One of the preoccupations of Aestheticism was with the 'musicality' of the visual arts, of the inherent abstract and narrativeless nature of painting. Much of the forward looking and experimental painting of the period 1860-1880, however, is clearly situated within narrative forms derived from the work of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and their prototypes in early Italian, Flemish and Northern European painting as well as in religious and allegorical models. This paper looks at how these narrative elements have been desacralised, sensualised and aestheticised to produce some of the aesthetic effects in paintings by Burne-Jones, Simeon Solomon and Walter Crane and uncovers the quotational and allusive impetus of then-works. The paper asks: do these artists subvert the narratives of religious painting or do they create a new aestheticised painting from the act of pictorial quotation? Session 21: The Visual Narrative Thomas Latham University College London The Rupture of Narrative: The Beginning of the End of the Story of the American War of Independence Told as a Family Quarrel The paper will focus on a ballad print entitled "Britania and her Daughter" from 1780, which in image, speech balloons and song builds a narrative for the American War of Independence (1775-1783) incorporating the countries involved up to that point as personifications of Britain, America, France and Spain. These characters interact i n a metaphorical construction of the war as a family quarrel. Although the image seems to illustrate one of the verses of the song, this paper will argue that in fact it represents a rupture of this family quarrel metaphor, since the introduction of Spain stretches the narrative beyond believability. The image actually has more in common with others that represent the balance of power in the war, and thus shows a shift in the way that the events of the war could be conceptualised by-contemporary British society. Fae Brauer The University of New South Wales, Australia Narrating the Secret: Salon Paedophilia and Homoerotic Phantasies At a time when sexologists Binet, Forel and Krafft-Ebing were pathologizing the male homosexual as an 'invert' and 'pervert', the first of 500 French Morality Leagues was formed to promote natality and combat any deviation from heteronormativity. Over 2,000 conferences on regenerating the nuclear family ensued, together with two massive International Congresses against Pornography in Paris in 1905 and 1908. Legislation against obscenity passed in 1881 was followed by a succession o f Laws from 1894 against 'the teaching of pornography through the eyes' - particularly through art designed, in the words of Emile Pouresy, 'to provoke an insatiable desire for all the vices contrary to life and against nature.' Yet within this Neo-Regulationist policing of desire, the narration of 'unnatural' phantasies in fin-de-siecle art flourished. While paedophilic and homoerotic relations were being narrated in modem French literature, particularly i n the tales of Jons-Karl Huysmans, Andre Gide and Marcel Proust, so they were in paintings exhibited at the Salon de la Rose + Croix and Salon Nationale des Beaux-Arts. As spaces of exhibitionism and erotic exchange, these modern Salons bulged with fawning St. Sebastians, languorous Bacchae, scantily-clad Apollos, pubescent Davids, Adonisian erastes and Platonic disciples, each provocatively posed with a soliciting gaze. In order to dissimulate legitimate homosociality, these sexual 'come-ons' were countered in these paintings by self-concealing moves away from the Salon beholder. Yet as this double movement solicited intimacy only to block it with narration of a secret, it inadvertently eroticized these representations of the male body. As Leo Bersani explains, once such narratives are put into question, they are sexualized by the suggestion of a secret. If this secret is the 'inverted' and 'perverted' sexuality that natality Leagues fought so hard to contain, this paper will consider whether the very homophobic stringency of new sexual regulationism paradoxically led to the opposite of the desired effect: Public performances of private paedophilic and homoerotic phantasies only intensified by their narration and fetishization as a secret. Mark Broughton Birkbeck College Grounds For A Plot/Plotted Grounds: English Landscapes In Two Visual Narratives 'Brideshead Revisited' and 'The Draughtsman's Contract' are rarely compared. The former is usually alluded to as a televisual prototype for the so-called 'heritage' genre, while the latter is generally seen as an example of British art cinema. However, i f we brush aside nomenclature and juxtapose the two in terms of narrative and English landscapes, similarities emerge which suggest a geographically situated practice of oscillation between landscape and filmic metaphors. This paper seeks to explore the dialectics that inheres between the physical landscapes, represented on screen as cinemorphic or televisual, and the camera styles, which draw on landscape motifs. It will consider how the works, respective alternations between metaphoric and metonymic poles specifically inflect these intermedial narrative discourses. Subsequently, the role of the artist character in both 'Brideshead Revisited' and 'The Draughtsman's Contract' will be delineated: how the artist acts as a centre for the plots (in all senses of the word, mediating discursively and ironically between the landscape metaphors/metonyms in camera styles and the filmic or televisual metaphors/metonyms in the onscreen landscapes. Finally, the paper will return to taxonomy and consider the works as significant contributions to audiovisual arts historiography. Miranda Wallace Goldsmiths 'Conjuring Narrative': Reading Hollis Frampton's Filmic Metanarratives This paper will address the reemergence of narrative paradigms in visual practices in the 1970s, through a discussion of Hollis Frampton's films, 'Zorns Lemma' (1970), 'Nostalgia' (1971) and 'Poetic Justice' (1972). Following the modernist suppression of narrative language, and in particular the rejection of narrative form by avant-garde filmmakers on the grounds of its authoritarianism, Frampton's desire to "conjure" narrative with his films can be seen as a defiant gesture. Frampton rejected the anti-narrative goals of fellow artists and filmmakers such as Peter Gidal, and instead sought to construct films which incorporated something akin to Roland Bardies' counter-narrative - strategies to unravel or destabilise narrative meaning, but not denying it altogether. It is also one that heralds a new attitude to narrative that would continue to develop in the work of the succeeding generation. Frampton's films foreground the structural components of film narrative, duration and language, but also allude to the ways in which static images - photographs ­can conjure stories, through a strategy of sequential seriality. As a photographer who was compeUed to work with the moving image as a consequence of his interest in seriality and its relation to visual language, Frampton consciously played on the tension implicit between a serial structure (the principal means by which minimalist artists sought to defy and deny the linear narrativisation of 'content') and a sequential one. I will discuss this tension as representing opposing forces in visual practice that were historically present in the early 1970s, and suggest the significant ways in which Frampton's work bridges the two paradigms in order to construct a new understanding of visual narrative. Session 22: Historicizing Digital Art Charlie Gere Birkbeck College, University of London, Art made using computers and other new technologies has in general received little attention from art historians. Since the 1960s it has been treated as a marginal activity that is largely irrelevant to the concerns of art history and to the trajectories and debates it engages with. But recently, with the rise of the World Wide Web and the increasingly important role played by digital technology in current society, this has begun to change. The critical interest generated by contemporary artistic movements such as net.art has also enabled the recovery of a rich history of practice in this area, going back to the 1950s and before. Digital and computer practice is being belatedly recognised as an important part of the history of contemporary art. There is a certain urgency to this as both the work and knowledge of pioneering practitioners are in danger of disappearing before they can be properly accounted for and given their due place in the narratives of modern and post-modern cultural history. Michael Corris Kingston University, UK Information Exchange in Conceptual Art Strictures proposed during the 1970s on the conditions of practice with respect to visual art identified as "critical" or self-reflexive are, or should be, well known. They assume that a devotion to specific sorts of competency in the course of the development of one's artistic practice effectively impedes the degree and kind of self-reflexivity upon which critical judgement depends. As something other than a "thought experiment" or a heuristic device, strictures on the conditions of practice intend to sort out a realistic, non-trivial model of self-reflexivity in art. This type of model presents a serious challenge in art to those who would, for the sake of their own careers, hasten the debasement of the critical. But the wilful abandonment of competency was not without its price: the loss of a relatively unproblematic and stable model of artistic practice. To some, this suggested that critical practices in art might demand their own artistic culture. Furthermore, an artistic culture that was incommensurable with the prevailing model. The theme this paper will address in the context of digital art and information networks is the extent to which social formations and artistic competencies shape knowledge production and enable critical practice. Rather than address in a general way the "sociology" of knowledge production in and around art, I shall focus my remarks on a specific project developed by Art & Language in New York between 1973 and 1974 — "Blurting in Art & Language" — and its recent translation by Thomas Dreher - an historian of art working in Munich and at the Center for Media .Art (ZKM), Karlsruhe - into an Internet resource. An analogy will be drawn between the methodology of the original project and the technical potentials of its Internet - and much expanded - version. This analogy will bear direcdy upon the issue of teaching and learning among artists in a collaborative and conversational milieu, and its possible application to current modes of pedagogy that aim to challenge the entrenched studio-based model of practice in art. Additionally, the logical constraints of information retrieval systems (which is precisely what web browsers and search engines are) will expose the poverty of Utopian claims aimed at the Internet. Nicholas Lambert Birkbeck College Scripting and Sketching: Two Approaches to Using Computers in Visual Art The production of current computer art may be divided into two camps: those artists who program their computers to make images; and those who draw directly on the screen using imaging software under the Graphical User Interface (GUI). Each approach involves a very different artistic understanding of the computer, its role in making the art and its position as a tool or agent. Using several case studies, I will explore how programmers and GUI users have varying claims to "directness" in creating their art. The programmers access the processes controlling the computer and instruct it to create their art, leading to a compositional understanding of their art procedures. By contrast, the GUI artists work at visually direct level and may exploit the powerful realtime tools developed in graphics applications. I conclude that the computer is no monolithic tool, but rather a conduit or platform for art that has developed to the point where it may support a range of artistic practices. This may or may not void its status as an art "medium". Caroline Langill Trent University, Ontario Behaving Badly: Electronic Art in Canada 1980-1990 Since the 1960s a number of visual artists in Canada have turned to technology, as both the object and subject of their artistic practice Fuelled by the writings of Ursula Franklin, Donna Haraway, N.Kafherine Hayles, Marshall McLuhan, Harold Innis, and Michael Polanyi these artists have developed a unique methodology that enrolls new technologies (computers/machines) as tools of production, while commenting on technology itself as a trope that influences all aspects of humanity in the twenty-first century. This paper will look at the conceptual and physical germs of digital art through early electronic art practices in Canada between 1980-1990, and the marginalization of such by public art institutions. In 1988 Norman White and Laura Kikauka produced a robotic/mechanical performative installation work called 'Them Fuckin' Robots'. Performed in a warehouse this work 'behaved' unlike any museum artwork. It exemplified electronic art's site of resistance in relation to the artistic canon. Using 'Them Fuckin' Robots' as an example of the resistance of electronic art to 'behave' I will draw a trajectory from early electronic artworks produced in Canada to current digital work as a collective resistance to the prescriptive, institutional norms of art objects. I will argue that the absence of this work from the historiography of late twentieth century is inexcusable considering the impact it has had on contemporary cultural practices. Maria Fernandez Cornell University Slimy Codes and Matrix Bitches: A History of Cyberfeminist Art In a recently published New York Times review, art critic Holland cotter writes: "Of the liberation movements for which the late twentieth century will be remembered, few have been as disparaged as feminism, and that scorn extends to the women's art movement. Even presumably well-intentioned art-worldlings seem incapable of talking about it without condescension, as if it were some indiscreet adolescent episode best forgotten." In this paper, I will sketch a history of cyberfeminist art and explore the problematics of such a project. Cyberfeminism has had numerous manifestations in the visual arts since the early 1990s, yet it sits uneasily between the poorly recorded histories of digital art and of feminist and activist art. Session 22: Historicizing Digital Art Although c^berfeminism has been theorized in various, sometimes divergent ways no serious attempt has been made to gather and consider art works and artistic trends around that theme. Cyberfeminist artistic production ranges from zine illustrations through video games and interactive media to both digitally and traditionally generated static high art. This paper will consider questions of delimitation: what and who should be included in a history of cyberfeminist art? Cyberfeminist art will be examined with respect to previous feminist art practices and theory as well as with respect to activist art. Luci Eyers KIAD, University of Kent Low-Fi Locator -a Temporal Space The internet is a fluid, shifting, mutating space and net art projects often reflect these qualities. Net art is also often highly context specific, this is particularly true of interventionist projects, activism and parody. At low-fi we focus on current activity by making monthly lists of selected net art projects. We provide contextual information and a link through our interface 'low-fi locator' which launches these projects from their existing locations. A history is created through this continuous process of looking and selecting projects and saving key information about authors, context and location within a database. There are limitations to this approach. Unlike the 'waybackmachine' at www.archive.org we only link to the current version of a site. Links can break leaving only traces of the project through our documentation. Art institutions are commissioning and collecting net art and are having to tackle issues around archiving but there are limitations here too, as the context, definitions and expectations of an 'art' project shift in relation to the institution. We attempt to maintain an independence and flexibility of approach which enables us to work with the diversity and temporality of the net. My presentation would expand upon this curatorial strategy. Caitlin Jones Soloman R. Guggenheim Museum, New York Variable Media Networks No doubt digital art poses challenges for curators, conservators and producers of contemporary art. The questions we need to ask of these new works, however, overlap consistently with those asked of many other works in contemporary collections. Conceptual art, performance and installation based works, film and video, as well as more traditional art object share many of the same practical, legal, and theoretical concerns as those facing new media. The Variable Media initiative explores both new and proven concepts of preservation by looking at the behaviors of more ephemeral mediums of contemporary art production. The initiative aims to define these works in terms of their medium-independent behaviors and to identify strategies for preserving artwork. For artists working in ephemeral formats who want posterity to experience their work more directly than through second­hand documentation or anecdote, the variable media paradigm encourages artists to define their work independently from medium so that the work can be translated once its current medium is obsolete. An interactive questionnaire has been developed, which will enable organizations and individuals to gather, store and share information about works with variable elements. As part of the larger Variable Media Network, this questionnaire is not intended to an exhaustive preservation tool, but a way to promote discussion, document variation and capture artistic intent in order to aid that intent's translation into future forms. Sarah Cook University of Sunderland The Impossibility of Digital Art History This paper presents the debatable premise that being a historian of new/digital media is a tautological impossibility and suggests that this is primarily due to the revolutionary aesthetics of digital media [its engagement, interactivity, simultaneity and telematic disembodiment] and the traditional aesthetic training of the art historian/art critic [used to dealing with static forms, it appears they are labouring under the constant misapprehension of technology as simply another delivery mechanism for art, not the art itself.] It proposes as a possible solution the more sociological writing of a history of exhibitions and curatorial practice in relation to new media. This would show the curator [understood in today's expanded field of curatorial practice to be not necessarily a trained specialist historian, but perhaps an ethnographer or indeed a media theorist] to be the inheritor of the history of this art medium. Such a history would also allow the historiographer to bear witness to the qualities of new media that are potentially the most problematic for both art historians and curators - namely its connections to real-world politics, ethics and social conditions. This learning by example approach would also allow for an illumination of the trial and error, collaborative, artist-led initiatives so prevalent in new media art production. Simon Yuill University of Dundee Ibn al-Bawwab and the Bastard Codes: An Overview of Notational and Programmatic Practice Computer programming is a notational practice. From the programmer's point of view the creation of software is realised through the manipulation of notational codes which are "rendered" as active computer applications through processes of software compilation or interpretation. As such programming bears analogies to other notational-based forms of practice such as the written composition of music and the draughting of architectural plans. The final realisations of these practices - software, musical performance, a building — are all achieved through the utilisations of specific notational systems: computer code, musical notation and the architectural plan. All such practices are pro-grammatic therefore, in the sense that they depend on a systemised articulation of marks which are produced in advance of their material realisation - the term "program" deriving from the Greek "pro" and "gramma" meaning a "mark which comes before". In recent years there has been a growing interest in programming as an artistic practice and in the aesthetics of code as a medium in its own right. This is evident, in a variety of forms, in the work of NATO, JODI, Bill Seaman, John Maeda and others. Florian Cramer has related such practice to concrete and combinatorial poetry. This paper proposes to relate such practices to the broader range of investigations and experimentations with notational media which were current through much of twentieth century avant-garde practice in many fields. In music we see this in Arnold Schoenberg's twelve-tone composition system, which derived from the notational properties of Western music rather then any inherent acoustical properties of sound, and the later explosion of notational experimentation in the work of John Cage, Earl Browne and many others. It is evident in architecture in the re­ investigation of the architectural plan in the work of Daniel Libeskind and Bernard Tschumi, as in many of the architectural, design and drawing courses of the Bauhaus - such as those of Paul Klee. The development of avant-garde animation and film experiment, in the work of Viking Eggling, Hans Richter, Oskar Fischinger and the Whitney brothers, was also heavily shaped through explorations of notational process, many of which fed directly into the visual language of the works in a way which is analogous to the exposure of code structures in the surface of JODI's "untided game" series. This field also spurred the development of new programming languages, such as Ken Knowlton's BEFLTX, comparable to the invention of new programming languages in musical practice, such as C-sound and MAX. The paper will begin, however, with a summary of notational and grammatic explorations and aesthetic discussion from the Arabic-speaking culture of the ninth-tenth centuries around the Mediterranean. This period witnessed the development of innovations in writing, musical notation and grammatology in the work of calligraphers such as ibn al-Bawwab and the theoretical works of the Ikwan al-Safa and Saadiah Gaon, among others. These serve to provide an historically and culturally distinct counterpoint to current notational experimentations from a period which prized notation as an artform (the work of ibn al-Bawwab, for example, was highly collectable to the extent that there was a market in forgeries of his manuscripts). Aspects of notational theory from this time, alongside that of the historian Oleg Grabar's analyses of it, will be applied to the practices in artists' computer programming outlined above. These will be compared and combined with the investigations of notation, grammatology and coding in the writings of Nelson Goodman, Jacques Derrida, Walter Ong and Niklas Luhmann. It will conclude with a look at the emergence of "bastard codes" in the programming of web-sites and OS-X's Cocoa applications and their relevance to current and future artistic practice in the field. These are programmatic media which can be produced through the hybridisation of multiple programming languages as opposed to the "classical" programming paradigm of monolingual programming environments — an analogy being drawn with the combination of heterogeneous musical styles in contemporary "bastard pop". Sandra Mols Centre for History of Science, University of Manchester Numerical Aesthetics of 3-D Electronic Mapping in 1950s Organic Crystallography The 1950s computerisation of organic crystallography - investigation of organic molecular structures - is often presented as 'inevitable'. Indeed, central practices to crystallography are the computation and interpretation of maps exhibiting distributions of electrons in molecules (similar to topographic representation of geographic relief). These practices were significantly altered by the 1930s-1960s transition from the use of analogue and 'primitive' digital techniques (tables of pre-calculated data) towards 'computers'. This transition meant more investigation of the complexity specific to organic molecules. Organic molecules are difficult to investigate for being three- dimensional, and, in practice, computerisation resulted in a shift from extrapolating 2-D projections towards computing 'accurate' 3-D representations. This transition to three-dimensionality is often argued to have solved problems of obtrusive 'subjectivity' in map interpretation and made organic crystallography 'possible'. Yet, close examination of the 1950s Leeds research in protein crystallography with the Manchester Mark I challenges discourses of 'inevitability' and 'objectivity'. Feasibility of three-dimensionality rather made computation and interpretation of maps an expert activity, still regularly disturbed by accusations of 'subjective' interpretations. Also, paradoxically, the emergence of this expertise was secured by these 3-D representations having nice 'appearances' and being 'computed'. Simon Pope UWIC Business School, Cardiff Self-Historicising: Artist as Curator in the Art for Networks The touring exhibition, 'Art for Networks' was originally devised by artist Simon Pope as a way of making sense of, (and moving beyond) 'net.art'. 'Net.Art' typically signified a technical art of the Internet or, more specifically, the Web. It has been defined as a progression through clearly defined stylistic or technical phases, which denies wider or longer views of how artists and their work operate. This linear art history becomes a problem for those implicated; pinned onto this restrictive and arbitrary time-line, artists have their destinies plotted for them. Consequently, for the artist, the process recognized by Stuart Home as 'self-historicising' becomes increasingly important. In this presentation, Simon Pope reflects the Art for Networks project as on a process of 'self-historicising' through: — the exploration of more expansive definitions of'network', — interviews and presentations conducted for the BBC in 2000 — curation of the Art for Networks touring exhibition. Helen Cadwallader The Arts Council of England UK Electronic Media Arts Practice Landscape This paper will explore some recent trends in the production, distribution and engagement of electronic media arts practice as this has emerged and developed in the UK over the last ten years. Here, the term new media art is applied to practice devised for electronic and networked media platforms and which is digitally based and characterised by connectivity, computability and interactivity. The 1 990s is a key period in the recent emergence of distributed and networked electronic media practice which arose, in part, from the ready availability of computer technology on the mass market in coincidence with the emergence of the internet. The emergence and rapid development of electronic media arts practice in the UK during the 1990s will be considered during this period with reference to some of the following areas: — cultural context (informed engagement e.g. curating, recent antecedents of mass media, entertainment, gaming etc) — infrastructure and the arts funding system (project funds e.g. the Arts Council New Media Art Projects Fund and its antecedents, arts capital lottery funded scheme creating a new media centre network, key centres, instatement of project based organisations and agencies as a very particular feature of the UK, key festivals and presentation platforms such as conference/seminar series) — creative industries — networks (discursive allegiances, collectives of shared interest) — practice and practitioners (artist collectives e.g. irational.org) — archiving. The future of electronic media art rests in part not only on the consolidation and further development of resources for research, production and informed engagement but on a solid grasp of what has passed. Historicising this area as it has evolved in the UK over the past ten years is critical in order to move on in an informed and knowledgable manner. Such a process would also enable electronic media arts to be aligned with other key trends in art history. The radicality of the net for electronic media arts practice lies in its immediacy and easy-access as a form of distribution free from mediation. However, this conversely has led to electronic media arts being effectively 'hidden' in on-line/distributable forms. This is further complicated by the works themselves, activated by technologies, software and plug-ins which are then superceded by endless revisions or whole new systems often resulting in technological obsolescence. So, this early period of electronic media arts practice is fast disappearing and as a highly specialised arena is not the subject of widespread study or research within the UK academy although notable exceptions exist in the recent work of Josephine Berry and Charlie Gere. However, more historical work needs to be undertaken now. Mike King London Metropolitan University The Work of the Digital Art Museum Digital Art Museum (DAM) is a collaborative project between London Metropolitan University and galleries in London and Berlin. It aims to be the world's leading online resource for the history- and practice of Digital Art, and already archives nearly 3,000 images from dozens of artists. It has been supported by a grant from the Arts and Humanities Research Board. The work to date has focussed on the Digital Art Pioneers, those artists and experimenters who entered the field between 1956 and 1986. Many of these pioneers have participated in DAM, already providing at this stage a valuable resource for a considerable portion of the activity in that period. The presentation wil l include the philosophy of DAM and an account of its offline activities in curating exhibitions in the UK and Europe, followed by a guided tour of the site. This involves a look at the oeuvres of some of the important artists so far archived, the site structure including its timelines and historical landmarks, and the essays section, a growing collection of writings that place the work in an art-historical and technological context. Jeremy Gardiner London College of Music and Media Heuristic Networks This outlines my experience with digital art, artist led initiatives from 1982-2002 including my time in the United States between 1983-99. It will cover my experience as a Harkness Fellow at the Media lab of MIT as it opened in 1984, working alongside Negroponte, Sherry Turkle, Joseph Weizenbaum et al and working with high tech startups on route 128. I wil l then look at the digital art scene in New York where I lived and worked during the late 80's and early 90's and the landmark Digital Art shows that were part of that time, It concludes with a project called Purbeck light Years, due to be shown in Digital Terrains at the Deluxe in January 2003. Session 22-. Historicizing Digital Art Edward Shanken Duke University, USA Art and Electronic Media Although the use of emerging technologies by artists has a long and rich history, art historical methodology has had remarkable difficulty identifying and seriously addressing this strain of endeavor and locating this tradition within the larger history of art. How then, can art critics and historians begin to write this neglected history? Why exactly would we want to? What might its canon consist of? How might various sub-genres and modes of art inquiry vvdthin this broad field be classified and categorized? What role do particular media or technical innovations play in defining this history, as opposed to aesthetic or art historical continuities? How effective are still images at conveying works of art in a field that is marked by time-based, interactive, and collaborative media? Session 23: Just What is it that Makes Today's Surrealism so Different, so Appealing? Simon Baker University College London Neil Cox University of Essex This session will explore the shifting context for the study of surrealism and reflect on tensions between the nnfashionableness associated with surrealism in the visual field, and the increasing centrality of figures such as Georges Bataille and Michel Leiris. It will also consider the relevance of surrealism to contemporary practice and debate recent trends in exhibiting surrealism in museums and galleries. This session will be run with the support of the AHRB Centre for Studies in Surrealism and its Legacies (Essex/Manchester/Tate) Haim Finkelstein Ben-Gurion University Struggling with Dali anew; or, What's New in Daliland In my book Salvador Dali's Art and Writing 1927-1942 (Cambrdige U P 1996), as well as in the commentaries on Dali's texts in my edition of Dali's writings (The Collected Writings of Salvador Dali, Cambridge U P 1998), psychoanalysis plays a key role; however, it does not serve as a psychoanalytical tool but rather as a means of analyzing Dali's own interpretation of his psychic situation. I am alluding there often to Freud, Rank and Lacan because they have served as the basis for Dali's psychoanalytical motivation on the more conscious level. My recent research focuses on the notion of Space in Surrealist theory and philosophy, as well as in the various manifestations of Surrealist creativity (art, writing, film). Surrealist theory and Surrealist creativity constimte a prism of different spatializations — representations of space both in terms of configurations of spatial practices and as appropriated by the imagination; in other words, the empirical, or perceivable, aspect of space, and the symbolic or psychological or mental space. Considerations of relatively recent theoretical notions relating to Surrealist "visuality" that bear upon my research have become unavoidable. I propose to share with the participants in this session my own at times somewhat dissentious reappraisal of some of the methodologies involved, with Dali again as my main example. Elliott H. King University of Essex Carrots and Cretins: Considering Dali's Negative Appraisal of (and by) Modern Art In David Lomas' The Haunted Self, the author introduces a chapter on Salvador Dali with a compelling observation: that 'one would be hard pressed to think of another major, avant-garde artist for whom there is such a striking correlation between their level of popular acclaim and critical disdain'. Why, despite (or perhaps owing to?) popular appeal, has Dali been banished from 'serious academic discourse'? The issues are many and will be opened for discussion via this presentation. I suggest that — in addition to blatant commercialism, particularly following his expulsion from Bretonian Surrealism ­part of the blame rests on Dali's consistent extolling of academic painting in the tradition of the Italian Old Masters and French art pompier artists. In the face of Greenbergian modernism, Dali flaunted a 'classical' affinity, admonishing abstract art at-length in his 19S7 livret, Dali on Modern Art: The Cuckolds of Antiquated Modern Art. In exploring this text and considering its relevance to Dali's subsequent views on Hyperrealism and Pop Art, I will argue that it was partially Dali's self-appointed destiny to 'save modern art' that has led to his critical 'abjection' and to his - particularly late ­works' general dismissal. Susan Laxton Columbia University, New York The Guarantor of Chance This paper focuses on the historical moment of the theorization of the surrealist image (1925-1929) to address the role of the game of cadavre exquis - its structure and its "play" - in that process. The period in which the game rose to prominence in the movement coincides with surrealism's shift away from the ineffability of early automatic practices - the acknowledgement on the part of the surrealists of the impossibility of unmediated access to the processes of the id - toward the establishment of a system that would instead signify the "real functioning of thought." If 'recent' writing on surrealism has turned away from painting it is because critics and historians recognized in alternative practices such as the cadavre exquis issues that were to become important to the subsequent generation of post-structuralist theories (meaning as contingent; intertextuality and intersubjectivity; scepticism about authenticity and self knowledge) and a range of postmodern practices. Any movement toward once again foregrounding surrealist painting would have to acknowledge the historical link between surrealism and post-structuralism or risk being regarded as a conservative retrenchment on a par with the post-WWI "return to reason" that was anathema to surrealism at its inception, or more seriously, part of the general reification of the movement after WW II. Patricia Allmer Loughborough University 'The True Art of Painting' - Magritte and the Ends of October Rene Magritte's work presents a sustained engagement with philosophical questions explored in contemporary art theory. However, this work has been largely neglected by scholars of surrealism; at best marginalised, at worst wholly omitted from the critical discourse on surrealism. Reasons for this may reside in Magritte's condemnation of interpretation of his works, his self-distancing from surrealism, and the life-long disagreements with Breton which led to his exclusion from the French surrealist group. The October Group has opened up art history to interpretative frameworks from philosophy and theory, drawing on work by-Heidegger, Benjamin and Lacan - frameworks often conceptualised in the intellectual debates explored by Magritte's oeuvre. October has succeeded in directing scholarly attention to the margins of surrealism. Nevertheless, October has consistendy failed to engage with Magritte's work. Session 23: Just What is it that Makes Today's Surrealism so Different, so Appealing? This paper will argue, contra October orthodoxies, that Magritte's work should be located at the centre of the contemporary re­theorisation of surrealism. It will examine a selection of Magritte's works, to consider the philosophical and theoretical questions raised and explored there. It will argue that any understanding of surrealism is incomplete without the analysis and consideration of Magritte's contributions to the intellectual field of the movement. David Cunningham University of Westminster A Question of Tomorrow: Writing the Surrealist Experience In a recent book, Colin MacCabe fashionably opposes the writings of Bataille to those of 'the loathsome Leninist Breton'. This paper seeks to question the 'philosophical' conceptions that underlie this all-too-pervasive contemporary view, partly derived from selective readings of French post-structuralism. In doing so, it takes its cue from two readings of surrealism which work to displace any straightforward, and implicitly hierachised, opposition between these different 'strands' of surrealism - Benjamin's famous (if often misunderstood) 1929 essay and a piece by Blanchot, entitled 'Tomorrow at Stake', from the late 19 60s. The fascination of these pieces lies in the closeness of each writer to Bataille, and, at the same time, the evident admiration for Breton's thought they display. Their usefulness in a contemporary context, it is argued, lies in their shared refusal to limit the significance of surrealism to that of an 'art movement', engaging it, instead, on a 'philosophical' level and in terms of what is defined as surrealist 'experience'. In this light, the paper considers the relationship of surrealism to ideas stemming from Hegel and from the legacy of German romanticism - particularly issues of history, time and utopianism — as a means to a more general rethinking of surrealism today and its connection to conceptions of 'modernism' and the 'avant-garde'. David Hopkins University of Glasgow Barney, Gober and their Critics: Post-Surrealism in 90s America The suspicion has recently taken hold among historians and critics that significant portions of 1990s art might productively be understood as late practices of Surrealism. This paper examines the extent to which art criticism in the 1990s has indeed viewed the work of contemporary artists -pre-eminently Matthew Barney and Robert Gober, but also that of other significant American artists - through the lens of Surrealism. At the same time, close attention will be given to the ways in which both critics and artists of the 1990s have drawn on certain historiographic constructions of Surrealism. Barney and Gober might be seen as corresponding to two quite different ways in which Surrealism has recently been conceptualised and this issue will be examined in some detail in the course of the paper. However, they have one very overt theme in common; an interest in masculinity and the way in which it is constructed both socially and via visual representation. Hence, taking the question of recent artistic articulations of masculinity as its main reference point, this paper's fundamental concern will be to explore the ways in which the contemporary art, criticism and scholarship surrounding Surrealism has repercussions for our current interest in re-thinking male identity. Angela Dimitrakaki University of Southampton Surrealism and the Post-feminist Unconscious: Meaning, Loss and Ideology in Contemporary Video Art by Women Following theories of postmodern culture in which 'surrealism' has been evoked to describe distinct aspects of video art, this paper asks whether such references encompass women's video art as well, especially with regard to women artists who in the 1970s and in the 1980s strove to develop a critical feminist language in their practice and turned to video precisely because of the control of meaning allowed by the editing process. I will then move on to consider the currency of the term 'surrealism' in relation to contemporary-video and film by women, given the transformed political climate of today as regards the institutional representation of women artists, the expectations of new audiences but also the formation of a post-feminist ideological space. I will consider the relationship of the latter to the increasing application of 'the surrealist principle' in contemporary women's video and film. This is a peculiar kind of surrealism, implying perhaps a reduction of the term to a de-contextualised aesthetic but possibly redeploying Surrealism's fascination with the feminine as a possibly transgressive 'state of being'. Following from that, my contention is that the 'surrealist principle' structures sequences of images in which nature mediates the signifying function of the body to propose Utopian or dystopian narratives of the feminine. What is important however is the ideological and political implications of this investment in the surrealist principle. Amna Malik Slade School of Art Mass Culture as Woman? Surrealism in the Museum at the End of the Twentieth Century Is surrealism today as subversive in its celebration of sexuality or desire as it was in the 20s, 30s, or even 1950s or has it been neutralized by its appropriation into mainstream culture? The Eros exhibition of 195 9 corresponded with the rise of consumer capitalism in the postwar era when the figure of the housewife became essential to the lubrication of the machinery of capitalism. But where the 195 9 Eros exhibition could confidently challenge the social mores of its era and remain critical of capitalism the Tate blockbuster in the late twentieth century was too heavily compromised by the culture industry. Surrealism: Desire Unbound is perhaps the most heavily designed exhibition to be shown at Tate Modern, although it made allusions to the earlier 1959 one, it resembled contemporary designs for boutiques, hotels and nightclubs that contributed to an erosion of differences between these leisure spaces and the museum. By appealing to a female spectator both in its marketing and design it created a confrontation between women as consumers of art and consumers of branded goods and high fashion items. The aim of this paper is to consider, through a comparison of the two exhibitions, how the appeal to a female consumer in the shopping arcade might be understood alongside that of the female spectator in the museum. Krzysztof Fijalkowski Norwich School of Art and Design 'Ouvrez-vous?' Surrealists and their Historians "What is Freedom?" "A Multitude of Little Multicoloured Lights on the Eyelid." 'Le Dialogue en 1928' With surrealism's celebrated hostility towards academic recuperation, and curators or historians wishing to shape surrealism in coherent and assimilable ways, one might consider the encounters between surrealists and curators as a 'surrealist dialogue' of mismatched expectation. This simple model of insiders and outsiders, participants and observers is far from adequate. The paper proposes a consideration of relationships between curators, art historians and surrealist groups, notably by focusing on key institutional exhibitions in Europe and the United States. This will be problematised in two directions: firstly, by exploring ways in which surrealists themselves have engaged with or collaborated in the institutional presentation of surrealism, arguing that surrealists were often ready to break the silence of surrealism's 'occultation'; and secondly, by examining ways in which curators have adopted 'surrealist' strategies in exhibition displays. These comparisons will propose a view of surrealism as a continuing, global presence (active notably in Prague, Paris and Chicago), and the apparent convergence they suggest will be critically examined in order to argue for surrealism's status not as a hermetic object of study but as a radical opening of channels of dialogue. Lewis Kachur Kean University Framing Surrealism in the 1930s: Displaying Desire Versus the Modernist White Cube Curator Alfred Barr's historical contextualization in "Fantastic Art, Dada, Surrealism" (1936) set the terms for Surrealism's apolitical and aliterary definition in the United States. Forgoing juxtaposition, Barr created unified groupings within a chronological narrative. His International Style installation established MoMA's "high modernist" spaces. Opposition by the Parisian Surrealist writers dissolved under the siren song of institutional exposure and acquisitions. The 1938 International Surrealist exhibition in Paris was conceived as a riposte to Barr. Its multisensory Surrealist environment countering the white cube with activation of the floor and ceiling, experimental hanging and dim lighting. Department store mannequins recontextualized as vehicles of erotic confrontation inscribed a narrative in the spectator's progress. Writers played a greater role as exhibitors and co-creators of a space of the marvellous. The subsequent Manhattan exhibition designs of gallerists Julien Levy and Peggy Guggenheim suggest that some saw commercial viability in this spectacle of Surrealist display. Yet after W W II the Museum of Modern Art's white cube became ascendant. In this context we consider the return to the narrative of sexuality, as well as a prominent role for the Surrealist writers, in the recent "Desire Unbound" exhibition. Panel discussion: Exhibiting Surrealism Simon Baker chair Dawn Ades Haim Finkelstein University of Essex Ben-Gurion University Fiona Bradley Lewis Kachur Hayward Gallery Kean University To close the session 'Just what is it that makes today's surrealism so different, so appealing?' the convenors have invited Professor Dawn Ades and Dr. Fiona Bradley to lead a panel discussion on the subject of exhibiting surrealism. Dawn Ades will speak briefly on what has come to be seen as a seminal moment in the history of surrealist exhibitions in this country, the Hayward Gallery's 1978 exhibition Dada and Surrealism Reviewed, and discuss the changing contexts for exhibiting surrealism since 1978. Fiona Bradley will speak about the curatorial issues involved in the forthcoming exhibition of the journal Documents at the Hayward Gallery, and its relation to mainstream surrealism. Session 24: Visual Intelligence Nigel Whiteley Lancaster University Art history has undergone a paradigm shift in the last quarter century with the previous prioritisation of the visual and the producer being countered by readings and audience. However, there is a danger that the contribution of the artist in terras of her or his special skills in articulating imagery, may be undervalued. There is, rightly, a suspicion about texts that emphasise the artist's uniqueness or genius, or which concentrate on the formal qualities of a work as relating to some transhistorical set of qualities, but there is a paucity of material that qualitatively analyses the way in which an artist has integrated the different aspects of a work in a way which achieves, for example, expressive power or subtlety, resonance, a compelling image, sustainable impact, symbolic richness or poetic evocation. The gain will be to reintroduce the idea of an artist's special skills, but in a way that is inclusive. Previous models were exclusivist, producing an absolute and separate form of the visual, notably Formalism. 'Visual intelligence' encourages diversity and difference, and re-evaluates the artist's particular abilities in articulating form, subject matter and meanings as one of the ingredients of the creation and reception of signs, without returning to simplistic notions of authorial creativity. Ian Heywood Leeds Metropolitan University Mantegna, Bonnefoy and Intelligence Following a line of thought developed by Yves Bonnefoy, the paper will suggest that in the work of Mantegna we see the effort of a Classicist, or more generally one who believes in bringing history to full intelligibility and has a 'theory' about how to do so. This is not an uncommon view, and Mantegna's ferocious interest in contemporary art theory is also well known. However, Bonnefoy goes on to suggest that Mantegna's work is full of unease and tension, as well as achievements and insights, that would be impossible if his paintings coincided fully with his evident aspirations and theories. Thus, in one sense, the works testify to the defeat or at least the qualification of one kind of visual intelligence by other, deeper insights. Here 'intelligence', suggesting as it does intellectual skill or knowledge, perhaps applies better to the former than the latter. The paper offers an introduction and exploration of some of Bonnefoy's ideas, in particular the notion that the contribution of the artist to great works of art is not so much due to visual intelligence - assuming that 'intelligence' has more or less its usual meaning — but a capacity to respond openly and directly to the nature of embodied, transitory human life, and to the inner contradictions and complexity that being human entails, including resistance to the 'lure' of painting, that is, the deep attraction offered by art's capacity to perfect an imaginary world. This is not, however, to underplay the importance of 'intelligence' in artistic practice, but to seek a wider context to which it belongs. Margaret MacNamidhe University College, Dublin Romantic Intelligence: Renewing Emotion in the Work of Eugene Delacroix Nobody could paint like Delacroix, his contemporaries said: whether in a spirit of sarcasm (affected by critics baffled by the remarkably diverse facture of his great Salon paintings) or adoration (most famously Baudelaire's rapturous response), viewers at the time testified to a visual intelligence rich and enigmatic. And yet a sense of that intelligence has become dulled in the art-historical scholarship on this artist, which has contributed a picture of august but static genius as Delacroix's increasingly solidified representative in the canon. My paper will reveal, or rather retrieve, the ambition and intricacies of Delacroix's visual intelligence though a close examination not of his great public paintings, but of one small watercolour: the Mazeppa of 1824. And yet this diffident and radical work-infused by a tacit knowledge of the wild tale of equine endurance and abandon it illustrates-sheds important light on the monumental and controversial Scenes from the Massacres at Chios painted in the same year. Precisely because Delacroix's visual intelligence proceeds though narratives that yield (the quaking, vulnerable spaces of his Mazeppa, the granting of a remission in the Chios's depiction of extremity and suffering), and paint that fluctuates (the listing slant of figures and landscape in the Mazeppa, the sometimes concentrated, sometimes gauzy facture of the Chios), it offers a corrective to the sweep of a familiar but vague Romanticism in which explanatory accounts of Delacroix have all too frequendy been lodged. Claudine Mitchell University of Leeds The Sculpture as Poem: Reflections on the Concepts of Metaphor and Analogy In the 1890s, in the circle of Auguste Rodin, the term 'poem' was applied to sculpture with an increased degree of precision. It referred to the relation between technique and meaning and the ability to make the medium of sculpture signify processes of thought and mental states. More specifically, the term 'poem' applied to certain modalities considered to expand beyond the field of representation, critics confidently drawing on Mallarmean poetics to conclude: 'the plastic work is in itself a metaphor that contains its own hyperbole'. In this paper I wish to retrieve Mallarme's concept of 'the suggested' in Crise de Vers to re-examine the interplay between sculptural and drawing technique in Rodin's later practice. My argument will be focussed on the use Rodin made of his pre-existing repertory of sculptural forms in his illustrations for Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du Mai and the transformations of the drawn image in one series of drawings. If the artistic process involves an understanding of relationships in the pre-existing order of 'things' (visual as well as verbal) that are themselves never directly stated, are the concepts of 'metaphor' and 'analogy' adequate to probe visual intelligence? Catherine dinger University College London Pansophist: The Preparatory Thought of Max Beckmann Apparent in thejahrmarkt Print Cycle The paper focuses on Der Grosse Mann, the fifth of ten drypoints in Beckmann's print cycle, Jahrmarkt (1922). A complex arrangement of figures is set on the grounds of an annual fair. On a platform, a dwarf is presenting a Tall Man to an audience. Though it is a decisive variant on the prototype Christ's Presentation to the People, Beckmann utilizes the same powerful devices of distortion and repetition intrinsic to late medieval prints providing a metaphysical connection to the tradition. Within Der Grosse Mann, the visually declared word, Panopticon, may lead viewers down a narrow path of deconstructive folly, unless they are aware of the comprehensive visual literacy of Beckmann. Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress, Thackeray's Vanity Fair, and Dostoevsky's The Idiot provide narrative source material both reverent and satirical; graphic works by Thackeray and Grandville, together with those by early masters of printmaking. The paper will address how Beckmann visually mediates between what he has seen and what he has read in order to create visual ciphers that are inclusive of spheres of sensation and longing. Through his mental and visual flexibility, Beckmann imparts the vista known to Der Grosse Mann. Sam Gathercole University of Liverpool The Dice Man Kenneth: The Use of Chance in the Work of Kenneth Martin In August 1968, Luke Rhinehart began his "new life" as The Dice Man, guided only by decisions made according to chance and wreaking havoc as a consequence. The following year, the English 'Constructivist' artist Kenneth Martin embarked on a series of paintings and drawings that sustained him to the end of his life in 1984. He called these works Chance and Order. As unlikely a pairing as the reckless Rhinehart and the ascetic Martin might be seen to be, this paper proposes to consider something of the common attraction that chance, as a form- giving factor, held for them and others in the late-1960s. Issues of 'visual intelligence' are interesting in this case in terms of the mediation of the 'special skills' that the artist might personally contribute to the creative act. The question is how much (and why) Kenneth Martin relinquished his own 'visual intelligence', preferring to be guided by chance and mathematical system. Martin's 'particular abilities in articulating form' must be measured against a willingness to de­personalize production, to re-configure the idea of the artist as now only one active participant within a broader form-giving process or programme. Allen Fisher Froebel College, University of Surrey Roehampton Visual Intelligence Exemplified by the Drawings of Joseph Beuys The paper proposes that 'visual intelligence' involves conceptual thought coupled to sensitive activity in the process of thought. This will be demonstrated through a discussion of the relationship between facture and function in the drawings of Joseph Beuys. The three functions demonstrated by Beuys' art may be described as: (i) Drawing in itself, aesthetic function; (ii) Drawing as a means to discover, beyond gestalt to explore associations: experimental function; (iii) Drawing as memoranda or to give plans for actions: diagrammatic or notational function. Many of Beuys' drawings provide for more than one function. The four approaches to facture in Beuys' practice may be summarised as: (a) Diagrammatic, note-making; (b) Chance-generation; (c) Drawing with deliberate signals or allusions to ecstatic generation; (d) Objective or imaginative drawing from the seen or remembered. Many of Beuys' drawings use more than one approach to facture. Chance-generation participates in signals for ecstatic generation; objective drawing often includes elements of note-making. Using specific examples, it becomes possible to chart a relationship between facture and function, leading to a frame of references for some aspects of visual thinking. Nigel Whiteley Lancaster University Visual Intelligence in an Age of Low Eye-cues Most of the papers in this stream examine positive aspects of visual intelligence from a range of historical periods. Do any of these important aspects of visual intelligence exist today in the work of 'Turner Prize' artists such as Martin Creed and Tracy Emin?, or is the 'big show in a fast way' (Robert Rosenblum) that characterises much contemporary art a denial of visual intelligence? Does this mean the concept of visual intelligence is no longer useful, or could it still provide a useful critical tool for the critic and historian? Session 25: Articulations in Blue Helen Glanville & Libby Sheldon University College London The significance of blues in colour composition will be discussed in the context of the availability, economics, characteristics and employment of the wide range of pigments which make a blue. It also hopes to show the importance of certain types of blue and the ways in which they can influence the balance of the whole palette. It will highlight the interest painters took in the optical properties of various pigments and the measures artists took to achieve a colour when poverty or lack of availability, did not allow them to use the blue they desired. The session looks at newly discovered blues in seventeenth-century Dutch paintings, and considers how and why they were chosen and have been employed. It also will consider whether certain blue pigments such as smalt have deteriorated, or whether they were employed for another purpose. If they have changed, what this means for our interpretation of the paintings. We will also discuss the part played by the identification of particular blues within a painting in matters of attribution. The second part of the session will be looking at the relativity of the colour blue. Since time immemorial blue has been associated with the heavens, and yet the sky is not made up of blue particles, it simply APPEARS blue. The role of perception as investigated by Aristotle, Leonardo, Newton and then Goethe, and the use painters made of these philosophical and scientific theories will be discussed, and questions asked as to the relativity of meaning and impact of colour in general and blue in particular through the ages. Sarah Richards Manchester Metropolitan University Cobalt Blues: Their Application in Ceramics, their Representation in Seventeenth-century Still-life Paintings Dutch merchants and artisans were engaged in trade with Saxony for the procurement of cobalt oxides used in the form of smalt by painters, and zaffer in the Delft pottery workshops. This paper is concerned with the availability and understanding of the raw materials required for the production of blues derived from cobalt. What was the significance of international trade in promoting a specific economic interest in the production of blue pigments during the seventeenth century? What were the reasons for the representation of blue and white Chinese porcelain vessels in so many seventeenth-century still-life paintings? What sort of challenge did these blues derived from cobalt ores present to painters who worked for a high degree of verisimilitude? Several artists in the Netherlands of the seventeenth century included examples of imported blue and white Chinese porcelains in many of their still-life compositions; for example Been, Flegel, Gillis, Claesz, Kalf. They were at pains to represent the character of the blues they saw on these ceramic vessels, and the range of blues is wide. In some cases this reflects the different sources of cobalt ores used by the Chinese porcelain painters, but in others it points to the possible use of paint pigments that were not able to render the character of these blues accurately. What we know about an oxide fixed by fire in a pristine condition under the glaze of porcelain vessels, may-provide a marker for the pigments used by still-life painters of the seventeenth century. Libby Sheldon University College London Blue Pigments: The Painter's Choice and Handling ­a Path to Attribution? This paper looks at the choices which artists made in selecting a specific pigment for a task. The identification of blue pigments has frequently provided the most useful evidence about the origins and purpose of paintings. In the sixteenth and seventeenth-centuries, a few blues dominated the palette - azurite, natural ultramarine, and smalt - while lesser ones like indigo playing supporting or minor roles; and, whereas azurite was employed all over Europe, vivianite (blue ochre) seems to have been limited to a particular area of Holland. So can the choice of blue pigment, as well as some of the variables within the appearance, preparation of, or manner of painting help in characterising a particular workshop? The focus wil l be on several paintings which have been recently examined within UCL, including those attributed to Cuyp, Vermeer and Elsheimer. The paper goes on to suggest that similar variables might be found, which would be useful in determining the origins of paintings using newer blues in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Martha loannidou Aristotle University of Thessaloniki The Blue Face of Immortality Lapis lazuli, amethyst the super-sacred of the seven jewels — ultramarine and in general blue pigments were employed from ancient times in dressing and decking the divine God(s) and their human representaives. Although in the course of time there was a gradual decrease in the use of expensive materials used for producing blue pigments, contemporary artists like Yves Klein insisted on casting or painting the divine and generally immortal Ideas in new blues. Through significant paradigms like the interpretation of Nike of Samothrace in Klein's blue "Victory of Samothrace', this paper aims to explore the reasons of this de facto nomination of colour blue as a manifestation of immortality and diviinity", a spiritual element, that went beyond the body, beyond dimensions and accomplished what White desired or signifed. Helen Glanville University College London Restoration and Authentication: Articulations in Time Colour is as much the fruit of perception as an intrinsic property of a material. When discussing authentication and therefore authenticity of colour in painting one must therefore refer as much to authenticity of intended effect, as to authenticity of the material concerned. Blue is the most immaterial of colours and effects — the sky contains no "blue" material, it is the effect of light, through moisture over the blackness of the universe. Blue, and the effect of blue has fascinated artists in various epochs. The presence of an orange-yellow discoloured varnish effaces blue in paintings. Authenticity of effect in restoration as well as painting will be touched upon. Spike Bucklow Hamilton Kerr Institute, University of Cambridge Platonic Blues The physics of light determined that there were few blue pigments available to the medieval artist. Each of the blues had its own problems. Ultramarine came from overseas, needed purifcation and had alternate uses as a drag, so it was very expensive. Azurite was local, easy to prepare, and so cheaper, but it needed to be used coarse to get a rich colour. Indigo was, well, rather grey. The best blue, according to many artists' treatises, was mercury azure. Numerous recipes exist describing the synthesis of this blue pigment from mercury and sulphur. The problem with this blue pigment was that it was red. Or maybe black. So why did artists insist that this compound was blue? Session 26: Articulating the Antique David Packwood University of Warwick This session considers the relationship between painting and the arrangement of sculpture in pictorial space. What does the articulation of sculptural sources in a painting reveal about the intentions of the artist, the expectations of patrons and the general cultural situation? Such themes that might be explored include the following: the array of sculpture in religious scenes such as the Baptism of Christ to communicate theological ideas; the use of relief sculpture such as sarcophagi by painters to convey abstract ideas such as sleep and death; the relationship between classical literature such as Ovid and sculptural figures in paintings; the relation between sculpture collections and figures in paintings; the creation of a tradition of articulation of the antique from the Renaissance through to Poussin, David and beyond. Verity Piatt Christchurch, University of Oxford Dying to See: Epiphanic Sarcophagi from Imperial Rome This paper explores the problem of how we are to view Roman sarcophagi within their cultural context, concentrating upon a series of mythological scenes which represent epiphanic confrontations between gods and mortals (such as Selene and Endymion, Aphrodite and Adonis, Dionysus and Ariadne). Recent scholarship has emphasised the secular elements of Roman funerary art, exploring the ways in which such images refer to the deceased's role in life. And yet, in reading such sarcophagi as forms of 'analogy' which seek to heroise the deceased through mythical representation, we must not forget the role of the image as a marker of death. Just as death itself is a liminal stage, in which the soul of the deceased passes from life to the world of the infernal manes, so the sarcophagus mirrors this very process with respect to the human body; it is, literally, a 'flesh-eater', which transforms and destroys. Both death and the sarcophagus act as agents of metamorphosis, and the tomb thus becomes a point of communication between the living and the dead, the corporeal and non-corporeal. Mythological scenes of epiphany, connected to the sarcophagus' role as a marker of liminality and a destroyer of the body, explore these notions through the visual languages of eroticism and classicism. Sexual abduction and death had enjoyed a long association in the classical world, as funerary images of Hades and Persephone demonstrate. The imagery of rape or seduction, combined with the attractions of the naturalistic body, emphasised the vulnerability and the beauty of the mortal deceased: as Pindar declared, 'Those whom the gods love die young.' Yet on these sarcophagus reliefs, it is not just the mortal body of the deceased which is emphasised, but also the immortal body of the deity. It is this confrontation between two different states of being, between corporeality and non-corporeality, which produces the metamorphic moment of epiphany, echoing the state of transition which is performed by both the sarcophagus, and death itself. While Aphrodite, Selene or Dionysus stand as the structural opposite of death (through their immortal status), they are simultaneously substitutions for death, which is, by its very nature, unrepresentable; just as divinity, death is 'a point lying beyond all possible experience.' By analysing sarcophagus reliefs in this way, I hope to demonstrate that Roman funerary images were not simply secular expressions of philhellenic social ambition, but were an intrinsic part of the religious, visual and literary culture of the period in which they were created, the 'Second Sophistic' In the art and literature of this period, epiphany is repeatedly employed as a tool to explore the nature of divinity, and its representation by man. While it is difficult, i f not impossible, to extrapolate notions of religious 'belief from funerary sculpture, we can certainly see that, in the context of ritual inhumation, epiphany engenders questions about the nature of mortality which are intimately related to the intense religiosity and visual sophistication of Greco-Roman culture in this period. Phillippa Plock University of Leeds Poussin, Statius and Lucretius: Articulations of maschio e fernina in Poussin's 'Mars' and 'Venus' at Boston This paper considers Poussin's articulation of two classical texts in the painting 'Mars' and 'Venus' now at Boston. In this painting Poussin seems to respond to the description of Mars in the texts by Lucretius and Statius, mediated through the mythological handbook of Cartari, as well as ancient sarcophagi reliefs, in order to articulate a masculine body-that simultaneously embodies female gender characteristics. Poussin's articulation of an imagined structure of gender, taken from the texts and representations of antiquity, can be situated in the context of the activities of the dal Pozzo family in the 1620s. Indeed, the painting can be understood as an articulation of the hopes and fears that surrounded the marriage of Carlo Antonio dal Pozzo and Theodora Costa that took place around the same time that Poussin executed the work. This analysis highlights one function of articulating the antique through visual culture: it could be a crucial source for visualising different constructions of masculinity, necessary for the dal Pozzo family to utilise in their negotiation with their own lived experience. Lindsey Schneider Institute of Rne Arts, NYU Antique Sources in Michelangelo's 'Battle of Cascina' Throughout his career, Michelangelo struggled to learn from great antique sculpture while at the same time developing a style of his own that he hoped would surpass the majesty of antiquity. This paper will examine the antique sources in the lost cartoon of the 'Battle of Cascina' (1504-6) for the Palazzo Vecchio, a particularly important work because it is the first time Michelangelo was afforded the opportunity to translate his admiration for and obsession with ancient sculpture into painting. That the cartoon is to some extent classically inspired has been previously acknowledged. However, this paper will elaborate on earlier findings and will demonstrate that Michelangelo did not limit himself by using only one ancient piece as the model for his figures, nor did he vaguely incorporate classical elements into the scene. On the contrary, nearly all of the twenty figures are inspired by several of the most influential pieces of ancient statuary known to Renaissance man. The entire scene is fundamentally classically derived and, had the final painting been executed, would have been the most comprehensive use of antique motifs in large-scale painting of his career. David Hemsoll University of Birmingham Michelangelo's Theory of Antique Imitation This paper concerns Michelangelo's use of the antique in his art, focusing not so much on which prototypes he employed but how he actually employed them. It wil l examine the seemingly contradictory statements made by Pietro Bembo, who claimed that Michelangelo carefully based his work on selected ancient prototypes, and Ascanio Condivi, who insisted that Michelangelo was not subservient to past art but based his works on the model of Nature. In doing so, it will propose that Michelangelo was drawn to different practices of artistic imitation at different stages of his career, and was also guided by the types of commission and subject he was engaged with. It will suggest in particular that Michelangelo's conception af artistic imitation was informed by views of literary imitation advocated by his early mentor Angelo Poliziano. Such views, it wil l argue, underlie Michelangelo's early training, and are especially evident in early commissions such as the 'Bacchus'. They then provided the basis of Michelangelo's method, and finally a theoretical basis for his understanding not only of the Antique but also of Nature itself. Leatrice Mendelsohn Independent Scholar, New York Depicting Perfection: Ancient Extremities and Renaissance Portraits Not only were techniques developed in the Renaissance for translating the literary topoi of female perfection into corporeal form, but the visual equivalents were adapted from specific esthetic models enumerated in ancient literary sources. Indeed, the search for a model "more perfect than nature" in the sixteenth century followed a direction Petrarch proposed in the fourteenth: the use of ancient sculpture. This paper will concentrate on how, why and which antique limbs were applied to painted figures in Renaissance portraits. How these limbs were selected, particularly the extremities of hands and feet, and were added to bodies of both male and female sitters requires investigating the background of Renaissance attitudes to the gendered body in relation to the meanings transferred by attaching fragments of ancient sculpture to presumably real persons depicted on flat surfaces. How male or female sources for these limbs, in light of workshop practice, affected apparent differences in Renaissance portrait formats and whether these fostered the aims of their sitters will be the focus of this talk. A careful analysis of surface detail, in particular the rendering of the extremities in sixteenth century portraits, especially the hands, indicates that such details function as carriers of meaning and when viewed cumulatively, they produce an assemblage of parts which signify. In compiling images, Renaissance artists did not disconnect an established repertoire of gesture from its original sources. Instead, they used visual cues to subtly evoke ancient sculptural sources. In this paper, (as in the cinquecento) the model and its signification will be seen as inseparable, even i f sometimes disguised or transformed. The Renaissance painter's use of sculpture as a model was motivated not only by a desire to surpass the practice of ancient sculptors, but to imitate literary descriptions in which sculptural models were invoked as ideals of beauty. Details of portraits by artists such as Raphael, Bronzino, Salviati, and Battista Franco will be examined to assess how their referential function, operating like poetic intertextuality, produced images of power by proxy. The paper will question whether the different statues from which the parts derive conveyed specific meanings or whether any hand or foot would have been acceptable. Separating the various means of conveyance — small scale models, replicas, or drawings after the antique — it will also consider how these sources affected the choice of poses in traditional portraits. In addition, I will suggest both the practical and philosophical reasons for reproducing extremities in minute detail. Tina Warnes University of Leeds In aedibus vulgo dictis de Zasse: Early Modern Attitudes to Antiquity, in Representations of the Sassi Courtyard and its Antique Sculptures A study of the 'lost' sixteenth century courtyard of the Casa Sassi, in Rome, is hindered by many problems and uncertainties. The crucial image was a dated drawing by Maarten van Heemskerck in the Kupferstichkabinett in Berlin, but its date will not fit into the documented chronology of the courtyard and its collection of first century AD Roman sculptures. Maarten van Heemskerck is renowned for the 'archaeological precision' of his representations, however in this image, the colossal Seated Apollo famously undergoes a sex change and becomes female. Despite the fact that the black Apollo Citharoedus is frequently imaged as an independent figure in the sixteenth century, it is rarely commented on in any literature, be it ancient or modern. Moreover Huelsen's nineteenth century 'evidence' as to the destruction of the Sassi courtyard is never questioned. By presenting new evidence of the continuing existence of the architectural 'space' of the courtyard, this paper will suggest that van Heemskerck-copied an earlier image, which may itself have been a fictitious (re-) presentation of the Sassi sculpture collection. Secondly, an analysis of the black Apollo Citharoedus itself, alongside its images, wil l reveal fluctuations in the (re-)presentation of its sexuality also. These fluctuations might illustrate changing sixteenth century attitudes towards the articulation of the Antique, and also towards the human body. They might also have been instrumentally part of that process. Paolo Sanvito University of Freiburg Representation of Sculpture in Patrician Courts in Rome in the First Decades of the Seventeenth Century The paper will address the question of how specific philosophical statements could have been expressed in and through the collection of the Giustinianis in Rome (ca 1600-1638, death year of Vincenzo Giustiniani) and how sculptural subjects, as metaphors of Antiquity, are to be understood as coherent to such statements. Some evidences are provided by the presence of the person of Seneca in the Giustiniani entourage and more generally in Roman culture, together with some other classicising and/or philosophical subjects which it contained (for ex. Sandrart's 'Cato's Death', Perrier's 'Cicero's Death'): first of all in an important 'Death of Seneca' by Sandrart, exhibited in eminent position in a "classical or philosophical hall" (also "stanza dei filosofi") at the Palace, the same hall in which also Giusto Fiammingo's Death of Socrates, Poussin's Massacre of the Innocents were to be found. Sandrart writes pointedly also in his 'Academie' that the 'Death of Seneca' had given impulse to Vincenzo to invite him to work at Palazzo Giustiniani. Sandrart, an important member of the Giustiniani court not only for his responsibilities in aesthetic choices (and in the end for the purchasing politics also) and artistic orientation of the collectors, but also for his enterprise of cataloguing the whole section of antiques funds in the monumental volumes of the Galleria Giustiniana, represents himself in his Autobiography or curriculum (Lebens-Lauf) and in the Teutsche Academie as a direct follower of the founder of Neo-Stoicism Justus Lipsius: his birth is exemplated on that of Lipsius. Besides, Seneca seems to particularly have fascinated him, as he is the subject of further three of his works. Session 26: Articulating the Antique The painter Angelo Caroselli, who worked in this period at the court and partially contributed to the 'Galleria' publication, made of the relationship of antique sculpture to painting one of his principal concerns, as being a theoretical problem discussed, again, in literary and philosophical circles. Caroselli expressed his personal position in this field by producing some crucial works on the subject. Besides, it seems to be especially suggestive noticing that Caroselli was an acquaintance of Vincenzo Giustiniani quite in the same period in which the latter was writing a treatise on sculpture, and consequendy was reflecting on the opposition between the two arts. However, as I will be trying to demonstrate, this opposition (sculpture-painting), also seen in the general debate or "paragone" (comparison) of the arts, accompanies several writings by Vincenzo. This might not wonder, if after all the antique was represented in his palaces by not less than 2000 sculptural works. But this fact could be only an exterior cause for such strong a concern in this collector's as well as in other Roman collectors' circles. More personal or deeper causes are to be pointed out. These considerations wil l let me address the problem: was sculpture, or more generally art, used as instrument to state ethically stoic or other philosophical positions of the patron, and if so, in which form? The paper wil l compare and collect the positions of several protagonists of Roman culture of the first decades of the seventeenth century in the arts (more incisively, for their important examples: Stomer, Honthorst, Sweerts) as well as in criticism and theory (Mancini, Baglione, Sandrart) in order to offer a final answer. Session 27: War, Community and Visual Culture Gabriel Koureas Birkbeck College Angela Weight The Imperial War Museum, and the Group for War and Culture Studies at the University of Westminster. In wars of the twentieth century, the 'imagined community' of the nation-state was often in tension with actual communities forged in response to conflict: colonial troops within the Allied forces; occupying troops and local inhabitants; refugees of many nationalities fleeing together; prisoners-of-war who shared no common language with their fellow inmates; the wounded of both sides in the same hospital ward; people of all ages and all classes descending into the London underground every night of the Blitz; the drastically changed social composition of the armed forces in wartime. While some new collective identities created by images of social cohesion were used as propaganda, some were censored or remained little known. Focusing on what joined people together in war and how these new configurations were and are represented in visual culture, this session addresses the following questions: What do wartime images and objects reveal about attitudes to, for example, male bonding in the forces, communities that ignored peacetime divisions of class and race, or the new prominence of women living and working together on the land, in hospitals or the munitions factories? What visual records exist but have been suppressed or ignored, and why? What was the role of museums in the memory and commemoration of war? What were the implications in the postwar period of seeing representations of new communities that transcended barriers of race, class and gender? How have these identities and relationships been articulated in visual culture? Sharon Lowenna Falmouth College of Arts Missing in Action: the Newlyn School and the Anglo-Boer War, 1899-1902 Dominant discourses of the Newlyn School emphasise Cornwall's 'pre-industrial remoteness' - an idyllic respite from the 'real' world of global events. Then, as now, the popularity of Newlyn School subject matter was for the 'plein air' picturesque, and resigned Christian acceptance of adversity. This paper addresses the social contexts of the Newlyn School corpus to reveal a different story. Successive collapses of Cornish tin mining forced large numbers into economic exile in South Africa. The Zulu and Boer Wars of the 1880s were determinants of the Cornish home economy, also ravaged by the Imperialist 2nd Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902. As the Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry fought in the fiercest battles, Cornwall (a traditionally- Liberal stronghold) was torn between jingoism and anti-War factions. Langley, Garstin and Tuke had strong South African and pro-Boer connections. Their paintings often counterpoint their Radical political views with the necessity of producing subject matter for the market. These are therefore subtly marked by- absence - communities impoverished of fighting-age males, absence signified by the black-edged letter etc. Overt Anglo-Boer War subjects exist but are themselves significantly absent, so this paper will explore why 'whereabouts unknown' has become the art historical equivalent of 'Missing in Action'. Simon Dell University of East Anglia The Apocalypse of Fraternity: Popular Front in France The Popular Front in France was inaugurated on 14 July 193 5 with an oath in which the people of France swore to remain united to fight fascism. This marked the successful re-articulation of a 'national-popular' culture after a series of political crises, yet the fraternal image established in 1935 was put under extreme pressure by the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War on 18 July 193 6. For the adoption of a French policy of non­intervention seemed to signal a retreat before fascism. This paper explores this contradiction within the French Popular Front by considering the image of the militia organised to defend Republican Spain. Photographs of the Spanish people taking up arms to defend democracy were soon circulated through the French press, and these images could be taken to be in direct conflict with the Popular Front policy of non-intervention. This situation was only-exacerbated by the creation of the International Brigades, in which French volunteers could demonstrate a popular solidarity with the Spanish which could not be reproduced at the parliamentary level. In this situation it seems that the new communities created in Spain simultaneously served to dislocate the fraternal image of the Popular Front in France. Veronica Davies University of East London 0 in This paper will examine the role of the British occupying forces in shaping and enforcing cultural policies linked to re­establishment of the German state following the end of World War II. Focussing on the crucial years 1945-51, it will investigate the operations of key personnel with responsibilities for the 'fine arts'. Where the visual arts were concerned, the official British presence in Germany functioned initially through the multi-partite Monuments, Fine Arts and Archives organisation. By the end of 1950, some responsibilities were transferred to the British Council, notably supporting travelling exhibitions and providing a focal point for information on modern British art. Changing priorities of the emerging Cold War were reflected in political shifts and policy redefinitions. Consequently, this paper will investigate two main areas. First, the negotiations between British forces and the other three occupying powers regarding German cultural regeneration. Second, those between British officers and members of the German 'art world', such as museum directors, about how these policies affected the visual arts and German cultural heritage. These interactions will be considered both at the level of post-war international policy making, and in relation to the efforts of individual officers working at a local level within the British Zone. Session 27: War, Community and Visual Culture Jonathan Blackwood University of Glamorgan Local Defence Volunteer: The Painting and Criticism of Edward Baird, 1939-45 Ruled out of active war service owing to ill-health, the Montrose-based painter Edward Baird (1904-49) busied himself with the local CEMA and WEA in Montrose, as well as participating as a commissioned war artist from November 1942. This interdisciplinary paper, drawing on paradigms from Art History, Media Studies and Political History, will seek to address the following themes: - The significance of 'modern' painting in the 'culture of defence', looking at media analysis of the CEMA exhibitions in Montrose, 1941-42 - The gap between 'official' interpretations of Baird's work and the private intent of the artist. For example, LDV was described by the Ministry of information as displaying ' a typical Scottish ghillie, resolute against the enemy', whereas for Baird it was an intensely personal depiction of a close friend, emblematic of a Scottish rather than British culture. - The suitability of Baird's methods in capturing 'official' portraits of war workers - The 'democratising' effect of the war on the art world, which became a patchwork of 'local' art worlds during the war, rather than centred on the institutional spaces of London and Edinburgh. Chin-tao Wu UCL and Nanhua University, Taiwan Missing Presumed Dead: Absence and Remembrance in the Work of Doris Salcedo Very few artists have the virtuosity of combining seemingly conventional forms of sculpture with the kind of political potency with which the Columbian artist Doris Salcedo imbues her work. Coming from a third-world country that has for many years been at war with itself and its own people, Salcedo has so far based all of her work on the first-hand evidence she has collected during her many field trips and interviews with the victims of Columbia's civil war. Employing, indeed re-cycling, personal domestic objects used by the war victims themselves, Salcedo makes these scraps and fragments from everyday life speak for the absent body and the missing person, and articulate what might otherwise have remained invisible and hidden, namely the associated lived experiences of their absent users. It is the interplay between the visible and the invisible and the oscillation between presence and absence that infuse the sculpture of Salcedo with its particular richness and power. This paper aims to investigate the various ways in which Salcedo represents the suffering victims of Columbia's warring communities, and how she gives meaning to the memory and history of a category of people who the West would be happier to ignore or forget. Graham Dawson University of Brighton Trauma, Postmemory, Place: Bloody Sunday, Derry 1972-2003 This paper draws on Marianne Hirsch's concept of 'postmemory' to investigate the cross-generational reproduction of the cultural memory of Bloody Sunday in Derry. The paper addresses aspects of local memory in the nationalist communities of the Bogside and the Creggan. Focusing particularly on constructions of visual memory derived from news photographs, their reworking in the art of local muraJ-painters, and the creation of a memorial space in the killing ground of the Bogside, it explores the relations between commemorative practices, the traumatic memories of survivors, and a cultural politics aimed at 'widening the circle of memory' to include a generation which 'wasn't even born' in 1972. Paul Gough University of West of England Creating Communities of Peace, Protest and Intervention After each of the world wars of the last century, the dialectic between remembering and forgetting has been a dominant theme in the discourses around martial commemoration and remembrance. In Germany the arguments have focussed on the status of memory as a knowable object. A counter-monument movement, driven by contextual fine artists such as Jochen Gerz, has asserted that statuary and sacred spaces induce a national amnesia, not a meaningful memory. Through artworks and cultural intervention artists have argued that no memory, place or landscape can be 'immutable', and that it is neither possible nor desirable to insist on a single, objective and authoritative reading of any place or site of memory. The principal aim of these artists is (to quote Michalski) 'to register protest or disagreement with an untenable prime object' - the plinth-bound exalted statue - and to set up a process of reflection and debate, however uncomfortable or radical. This paper will explore how contemporary artists have attempted to create new communities of non-passive participants who are encouraged to interact with artworks. In addition to the work of Gerz, the paper will focus on examples of interaction and intervention that have taken place since 11th September 2001 in UK and USA. These have taken actual and virtual form, and have been encouraged by artists such as Robert Atkins (and the 91 1 — The September 1 1 Project). The paper will focus on a commemorative artwork created for display in the UK during September — November 2001 which was serially altered ­through graffiti and other forms of intervention - in ways that challenged the artist's ambitions for the piece, and extended the work into a new community of largely unseen and unknown participants. Session 28: Transformations: The Aesthetics of Replication 1800-1900 Martina Droth Henry Moore Institute, Leeds Patricia Mainardi City University of New York Graduate Center The issue of replicas and copies of works of art has been the subject of much critical debate over the last three decades. Discussions have focused on the moral and ethical implications of replicas; the problematic status of mechanical reproduction within parameters that define the art work as unique; the technical and practical issues of reproduction, such as the development of new techniques and changes in studio practice. This session aims to shift the focus of discussion into a new direction, by looking at the question of how works of art are affected visually and aesthetically when they are replicated and re-contextualised. The session will explore ways of understanding and interpreting the visual impact on works of art when they are 'transformed' into other media, dimensions and contexts. It asks not only how perceptions and meanings change when a work is transformed, but examines what the work becomes in its transformed state - what relationships remain between the 'new' and 'original' state, and what is the role of the 'original' in these outcomes? Ultimately, the session asks where we perceive the essence of a work of art to reside, and how this is retained, lost, or re-negotiated once the object is reframed as something else. Heather MacLennan University of Gloucester Prints of Prints: The Facsimile and the "Discovery" of the Early Renaissance Print in Britain, 1810-1828 The facsimile was an important feature of the art market and publishing trade in the early nineteenth century, a time of interesting developments in print collecting culture. Beautiful replica prints both loose and bound were imported. Books on engraving featured faithful copies of rare or significant print impressions. British collectors lent precious material to authors for illustration. Specially commissioned facsimiles assisted the study of rare prints. Ottley's A Collection of One Hundred and Twenty Five Facsimiles of Scarce and Curious Prints by the Early Masters of the Italian, German and Flemish Schools ...(Vol.1) which was published in 1826, served both antiquarian and aesthetic interests. The context of the facsimile is explored in relation to the collecting of early prints, the identification of the peintre graveur and the debate about the origin of engraving, drawing on newly discovered material from collectors' correspondence. The value of the facsimile and its meaning in relation to the original is considered, at a time when the engraver's art was especially admired and when appreciation of the original print led to special demand for the faithful cop)'. Satish Padiyar University College London Sculpture, Engraving, Photography. The Restitution of the Truth in Replication My paper wil l explore the possibilities of reproduction of objects produced by the sculptor Antonio Canova (1757-1822) in the first decades of the nineteenth century. In redefining the classical sculptural object for a modern post-revolutionary audience Canova hypostasized the finish, or 'final touch"; the object's authenticity was seen to reside in the worked space of its surface. What happens to this authenticating Canovian 'touch' once sculpture is replicated in other, quite alien, media? I shall examine the translatability of the Canovian object via its nineteenth-century engravings, and twentieth-century photographs. If those strikingly beautiful and highly-wrought engravings seem fundamentally to misunderstand and undo the significance of Canova's transformative finish, twentieth-century photography succeeds, I will argue, in restituting its truth. By way of Rodin and Brancusi, and their interest in the redemptive relationship between the sculptural object and its photographic replication, I shall argue that mechanical reproduction results not in diminishing the aura of the work of art but in revealing once more immanent properties which, through successive historical redirections of the gaze, have become lost to the newer. Pierre-Lin Renie Musee Goupil The Reproductive Print and Photograph in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century In the nineteenth century, visual culture was transformed by the emergence of new image-making technologies, by industrialized production of images, and by expanded distribution to new markets in Europe and North America. In the specific realm of reproductions of paintings-old masters as well as works from the Paris Salons-the proliferation of images generated far- reaching consequences for the nascent study of the history of art and for the work of living artists. Aided and abetted by an international network of branches and affiliates, the French publisher Goupil succeeded in blanketing the globe with a prodigious output of prints and photographs. These images were accepted as the utmost achievement in art merely because they reflected the glories of the Paris Salon. They were an irresistible commodity: decorative, affordable, accessible, and easy for the novice collector to understand. Whether sold separately, or as albums, sets, or in fascicles, these images inevitably exerted a strong influence on artists, many of whom yielded to market pressure and willingly created paintings with reproductivity in mind. The study of art reproductions in the nineteenth century bears implications beyond the history of taste and the consequent change in attitude toward reproductions. At the dawn of the twenty-first century, this historical subject forms an essential part of the context of today's debate over the effects of new-media upon art and the study of art history. The high-tech revolution may, in fact, represent the most dramatic change in the circulation of images since the image-explosion of the second half of the nineteenth century. Kate Nearpass Ogden The Richard Stockton college of New Jersey Close Cousins: Landscape Photography & The Plein Air Oil Sketch The photograph and the plein air oil sketch, pictorial innovations of the 1830s, enriched and enlivened the discourse of nineteenth-century art production. Session 28: Transformations: The Aesthetics of Replication 1800-1900 Photography, the result of several technological developments that culminated in 1839, is essentially a serial medium; many negatives can be made with relative ease during a given outing, and many images can be made from each negative. The plein air sketch, made possible by the introduction of tube paints, allowed artists to sketch in oils while confronting nature directly, out-of-doors. Although not a serial medium in itself, the plein air sketch has a relationship to multiple image-making: it was used, at first, to make preliminary studies which would be utilized as source material for larger easel compositions of the same subjects. By the second half of the nineteenth century, the plein air sketch was used by the French Impressionists and others to create finished products, rather than studies, while working outdoors. My purpose here is not to discuss the innovations inspired by these forms of nineteenth century image-making, but to look more closely at their relationship, which was a close one in many respects. Art historians have traditionally compared mammoth-plate landscape photographs ­the largest possible prints (up to 18 by 22 inches) made from glass plate negatives ­with large easel compositions of the same scenes produced in the painter's studio. This is an appropriate analogy to make when considering the panoramic scope of the images, their high degree of detail or finish, and the relative size of paintings and mammoth-plate prints. Such comparisons neglect the artists' methods and intentions, however, and can therefore be misleading. With regard to purpose, approach, and speed of execution, the nineteenth-century landscape photograph actually has more in common with the modest plein air oil sketch, or even with the pencil sketch from nature, than with the finished easel painting. I will demonstrate this using Albert Bierstadt's sketches and paintings of Yosemite Valley and the photographs of the same site taken by Carleton Watkins and Eadweard Muybridge. Both were created in numbers that allow them to be called a series. Both the plein air oil sketches and the photographs were created on location, not synthesized later in the studio. Both required a matter of minutes — or, at most, hours — to execute, as opposed to the days and weeks needed for an easel composition. Scope of subject matter is another point of comparison, as the oil sketch and the photograph could focus on a single object, phenomenon, or detail of nature ­regardless of its merit as a composition ­and thus serve as a study from nature. Conversely, the finished easel painting generally had stricter and more ambitious compositional requirements; originality was often expected of the composition, rather than a precise transcription of nature. Ironically, the popularity of Bierstadt's Yosemite paintings led to his creation of a series of nearly-identical landscapes in the 1860s — a case in which market demand negated the usual requirement for originality. Both plein air sketches and photographs seem more true to the original scene than easel paintings. Since the accuracy of photography's transcription of nature was believed implicitly in the early years, the medium was seen as an important handmaid to science as well as to painting. Then, as now, Bierstadt's plein air studies were likewise considered truthful, while his easel compositions were allowed more artistic license. In terms of replication, each photograph printed from a given negative was as true to nature as the first, whereas myriad changes could and did occur between the on-site sketch and the studio-produced easel painting. Watkins', Muybridge's, and Bierstadt's Yosemite landscapes provide many examples of these contentions. The end of the story can perhaps be found in recent critical responses to these landscapes. Twenty-first-century viewers, raised on the apparent freshness of Impressionist handling and on the spontaneity of more recent Abstract Expressionist paintings, have generally admired Watkins' and Muybridge's photographs and Bierstadt's oil sketches, while finding easel compositions by the latter overly theatrical and full of artifice. In recent years, even the easel compositions have become more widely admired, as art historians have studied and written about Bierstadt's work as an interesting nexus of aesthetic, nationalistic, and commercial issues. Susan Siegfried University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Repetition as Artistic Process Ingres's replication of historical subjects has particularly intrigued scholars since the 1970s, when the primacy previously accorded to original authorship began to be challenged. His recensions have been differendy interpreted. This paper looks at the hermeneutics of his repetitions as a material process and argues that this was generative rather than being simply a symptom of fixation or of entrapment within commodity culture's logic of seriality. I consider the dialectical tension between the degrading effects of repetition and its transformative potential. When Ingres translated subjects into different media and formats or elaborated their decor, he altered them, perhaps because he rarely changed the main figural motif, which reappears like a found object. The act of replicating a subject enabled the possibility of transformation. Something new came out of the materiality of the act of re-making - he grabbed an idea in the process of the making rather than, as others have argued, pursuing an ideal or being driven or compelled to repeat it. Deviant repetition of this kind characterized certain modes of art production in the nineteenth century. While Ingres took it further than most, the tension between copying and variation was also a generative process for artists such as Delacroix and Degas. Monica Kjellman Chapin Clark University A Dialogic Replication: Ingres in Whistler's Little Blue Girl J.M. Whistler's Harmony in Blue and Gold: The Little Blue Girl is a strange painting. Part of its peculiarity resides in a tension between familiarity and unfamiliarity that one can perceive within it. This tension, or dialectic between the familiar and the strange, stems from Whistler's bid to reference Ingres through this particular pictured body. This is an instance of replication that was to result in the indelible inscription of Whistler in tradition on the same level of value as the French master of disegno. Thus, in The Little Blue Girl the trace of Ingres was intended to be quite specific, to be immediately recognizable, so that the viewer would have to understand this body in relation to the bodies of Ingres, and to read the representation in those terms. What I propose in this paper is to elucidate the ways in which Whistler relies on the iterability of the Ingresque body, and the reasons motivating that reliance; I will also consider the ways in which this strategy fails to fulfill its function. Amy Herman The Frick Collection Constable's Salisbury Cathedral: The Role of Patronage and Shifting Aesthetics Over the course of two decades, from 1811 to 1831, John Constable's visits to the city of Salisbury produced over 20 known paintings and at least 45 sketches of its majestic cathedral. In Constable's images of Salisbury Cathedral, the rustic attributes of his earliest landscapes yield to his patron's more refined aesthetic, and are transformed again, almost a decade later, when the pristine veneer is shed for a comparatively dramatic and elegiac view of this subject. The series of sketches and paintings of Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop's Grounds (1820-1829) was completed under the aegis of the Bishop of Salisbury, while Constable's subsequent versions of the cathedral, known collectively as Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows (1829-1834) contrast forcefully with the earlier pictures and reflect a far more evocative style. This paper will analyze the numerous versions of the Cathedral and attempt to elucidate the correlations between the artist's political, personal, and partronal circumstances and his shifting aesthetics. Session 29: Disappearance Tamar Garb University College London Briony Fer University College London If art is normally thought to be concerned with the appearance of things within a field of representation, this session looks at the idea of disappearance - as that which falls away from view and puts pressure on notions of visuality and presence. We are interested in thinking through and trying to thematise the idea of disappearance from various angles - for example, the mechanics of erasure in processes of representation; the disappearance of the figure; uncertainties about the corporeal object in representation and implications for subjectivity; the questions of evanescence, obsolescence, transience; the dissolution of the thing that is the art object. Rather than assert absence as the consequence, we are interested in thinking about new configurations and how they emerge, new forms of ^\ f articulating the void. Alex Potts University of Michigan Excess and Erasure: Modern Visions of Monumentally My purpose here is to demonstrate that the cult of the monument, far from being incompatible with a modernist sensibility, was a major feature of it, but in a very ambiguous way. In Utopian visions of the modern city such as Le Corbusier's, the monumental crystal tower was posited on the disappearance or annihilation of the chaotic materiality of the traditional city scape; indeed this disappearance sustained the excitement of the vision of a new monumentality. I shall be focusing on the ambiguities of projects for large scale monumental works by artists working in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly Claes Oldenburg. The imagined monumental presence of these works was often excessively so, but at the same time cancelled out by a rhetoric of irony or impermanence or provisionality. It was as if there existed a constitutive tension between the work as vividly projected, often massively inflated intervention and as permanent presence, that it is the purpose of this paper to explore. Dominic Rahtz Oxford Brookes University Robert Smithson's Nonphenomenal Reading of Minimalism Successive interpretations of Minimal Art have tended to start out from its presumed literal phenomenality, that is, from its appearance. I wish to look at Robert Smithson's counterinterpretation, which defined Minimalism according to a material textuality. My point of departure will be some remarks made by Michael Fried who, in contrasting his own 78 more phenomenological position with Smithson's, said that Smithson held a 'proto-de Manian view of language,' and referred to his 'linguistic materialism.' Paul de Man's view of language can indeed be considered 'materialist,' but it has also been considered as 'nonphenomenal,' in the sense that he undertook to produce readings of literary and philosophical texts which went against the delusive phenomenalization of language by tropes and figures. Smithson's interpretation of Minimal Art in terms of a material textuality corresponded in his case to a material vision which imagined the erosion into an undifferentiated state of all edifices of thought based on perception and consciousness. The proposed paper will argue that Smithson's interpretation was meant as nonphenomenal in a similar way to that attributed to de Man, that is, as a deconstruction of phenomenalized language. Jean-Paul Martinon Goldsmiths College The Ephemeral Event In the twentieth century, arguably for the first time in history, artists began to make work which was never intended to last. This paper focuses on works of art that burn, explode, melt, evaporate, rust or simply disappear over a short period of time. These works are framed by three themes devised for the way they present these ephemeral events in relation to the future: what is bound to come, what comes and what ought to come. These three themes expose the ephemeral art object as i f it was a subject, constantly engaged in the process of its own coming-into-being and as an endless call for signification. This approach, which evades the whole object/space and/or object/viewer relationship is not aimed at positing an essentialism of the evanescent art object in ways that would differentiate it from more permanent objects. The three themes explored reveal the fact that, placed in relation to their futurity, ephemeral art practices effectively ignore any separation between what is presented and what is represented. In the event, both manifest themselves in the disseminating process of the present and the ever malleable plasticity of language. This paper, which also aims to disrupt the traditional histories of the dematerialisation of the art object usually put forward in the analysis of land, process, performance and conceptual art, articulates arguments that are based on interpretations of particular philosophical notions by Nancy and Derrida. The ephemeral art projects explored, include: Stano Filko and Alex Mlynarcik's 'Happsoc' [1965], Allan Kaprow's 'Fluid', [1967], Hans Haacke's '100 Bottles' [1969], Daniel Spoerri's 'Repas Champetre' [1983] and Gran Fury's 'Wall Street Money' [1988]. Marianne May University of Sussex Fading into the Distance In The Past Recaptured Marcel Proust's unchanging conception of himself is radically altered when he is confronted with the appearance of old acquaintances. Moving from a state of blindness to having insight into what his future will be, he appears to invert Lacan's account of the mirror stage in which the visual image of unity conflicts with the lived experience of fragmentation, the ageing image denying identification, precipitating the loss of the image itself. Articulating such absence raises issues of memory and forgetting, mourning and loss, and, finally, death. The complexities of figuring this rupture in identification will be examined through Heather Ackroyd and Dan Harvey's Mother and Child, a portrait of Ackroyd and her daughter grown from grass seed, and Marc Quinn's series of self-portraits. Self, created from the artist's own blood. In their own distinctive ways, both pieces map out the passage of time, the work and the artists ageing together. Through the employment of organic and ephemeral materials they evoke, and indeed perform, their own fragility, their temporal existence de-materialising or held in frozen suspension. We will consider the implications for viewing and experiencing such transience and disintegration. Margaret Iversen University of Essex Lost and Found The lineage of the ready-made is well known. It is characterized by aesthetic indifference, mass production, artistic withdrawal and the non-aura of the simulacral copy without an original. Yet it has a close relative, the found object, best exemplified by Breton's slipper spoon, which carries quite different connotations. Neither type of object is fabricated by the artist, but while one is an everyday object 'reclassified' by an inscription, the other is rare, strange, opaque and encountered as if by chance. While the ready-made is rigorously impersonal and ironic, the found object is one destined for an encounter with a particular subject. While the readymade is infinitely reproducible, the found object bears a unique relation to an unconscious reality constituted by loss and. for that reason, bears a peculiar relation to vision: it calls attention to itself by creating a hole in the fabric of normal perception. The found object, like the related phenomena of Lacan's anamorphic skull and Barthes's punctum, all hesitate on the threshold of visibility. Photographing a found object doubles its inherent dimension of loss. My paper sets out to trace the lineages of the found object in theory and practice. Among contemporary artists whose work I will consider in these terms are Christian Boltanski, Mary Kelly and Gabriel Orozco. Peg Rawes Goldsmiths College and Bartlett School of Architecture Abstract Janet Cardiff: Immersive Imaginaries This paper examines the sonic works of Janet Cardiff, proposing that her practice manifests the virtual and immaterial qualities of sound as a result of the disappearance of material and sensor)- boundaries between the body of the participant, the materiality of the 'work' and the split between 'real' and 'imaginary' events. This immanent relationship between the work and the 'listener' can therefore be said to express the scope for disappearance (and emergence) that the sonic spectrum offers, and the production of alternative states of awareness or relations that arise between: the work and the spectator, the subject and object, the real and the imaginary, the virtual and the empirical. For example, the sonorous envelope that is created between the listener who wears the disembodied voice of the artist in the Mtinster, Louisiana or Whitechapel walks, or the expression of a transcendental choral space in her reworking of Thomas Tallis's Forty-Part Motet. Thus, rather than attempting to convert the invisible into the visible or concrete, Cardiff's work produces an immersive field or space of 'simultaneous' states of reality within which immaterial, invisible, virtual or absent modes of reality are in 'themselves' considered as 'real' as those concepts of concrete and empirical materiality that dominate discussions of visual culture and modernism. Gavin Parkinson University of Manchester Mindine the Gap:Articulatina Deference 'Mallarme and Duchamp show us the reverse of language,' wrote Octavio Paz, 'the other side, the empty face of the mirror.' This emptiness intuited by Paz manifests itself in a variety of forms in Duchamp's work, as gap, blind spot, deferral, evanescence, passage, lack, infra-mince: the fault lines through which logical discourse slips away and nonmeaning enters. While acknowledging one dimension of this strategy - in Duchamp's disappearance from the site of his own works through his play with signature, pseudonym, and alter ego - his commentators have persistently ignored its lesson by factoring intentionality back into the work in deference to the authorial voice. This paper deploys tropes of uncertainty, incompleteness, and excrementality drawn from deconstruction in the service of a metacommentary on Duchamp's work and its reception. Firstly, it examines the secrecy, silence, and absence which undergird Duchamp's 'scriptural economy.' Secondly, it argues that new readings of Duchamp's oeuvre must take account of the anti-epistemology that veils many of his interventions, which continues to deflect conventional critical approaches. In place of the reinscription of authorship which blights the debate over Duchamp's relevance, this paper posits the notion of a mute insufficiency, (un)written at the very vanishing point of thought. ice Jo Applin University College London Lee Bontecou: Topographies of the Void The three-dimensional objects constructed throughout the sixties by New York based artist Lee Bontecou, in which a large central black void is always featured will provide the focus point for my presentation. I will address the way in which these objects insist on their very objecthood and abstract form whilst at the same time leaking porously into a mode of metaphoric reading that resonates with notions of aggressivity, sexual violence, vision and blindness, presence and absence. How such readings engender a reading of the surfaces and craters of these large reliefs as various different topographies such as bodily, bellicose, apocalyptic and psychic will be addressed. The black void will be taken as metaphor for the way in which such readings might be represented through that very absence or representation of 'nothingness' that the black hole signifies. The attendant implications for subjectivity, and how it is put under pressure will be examined, as the black hole both invites and threatens the spectator. How the resolutely-abstract might slip into a rather more phantasmatic image in which the void might be both something and nothing provides a productive route into Bontecou's works, designed as they were to 'mentally scrape the viewer' . I suggest that such ambivalent, oscillatory readings of these works is necessary for any understanding of a work of art positing the void, that is 'disappearance', as its central motif. Gill Perry The Open University Do it in the Grass': Soil and Performance in Ana Mendieta's Silueta Series 'This obsessive act of reasserting my ties with the earth is really the reactivation of primeval beliefs...' (Ana Mendieta, 1981) Prompted by the artist's claims, studies of Mendieta's Silueta Series have frequently interpreted her earth/body art as both instilled with primitivist fantasies of a feminine primordial power, and as an obsessive response to trauma and loss. This paper will question the relative importance of some of these claims, arguing that her work also directly addresses some compelling sculptural and material problems encountered by artists forging a difficult relationship between emerging theories of the performative and earth art in the 1970s and 80s. The problem of transformation or 'dematerialisation', and how this might (or might not) be enacted through earth/body works which priviledge absence and photographic memory, will be central to this study. Brigid Doherty Johns Hopkins University Writing as Making Present or, Darboven's 'Disappearance' In 1968, following her training at the Hochschule fur bildende Kunst in Hamburg and two years of intensive production in New York City, Hanne Darboven (b. 1941) stopped making works of visual art in conventional forms and began instead to produce serial works based on various techniques of writing and counting, most prominently the inscription of arithmetical permutations derived from calculations involving the numerals that make up calendar dates, and the hand- or typewritten transcription of literary, historical, and philosophical texts. This paper concerns a crux in Darboven's art, in which citations from nineteenth- and twentieth-century literature, history, and philosophy and reproductions of well-known works of art are embedded within a larger system of inscription whose idiosyncrasy and repetitiveness evoke a profoundly private aspect of Darboven's exercises in "real writing" (the term is the artist's own). Central to Darboven's project is a practice I call "writing as making present," a concept derived from the German "vergegenwartigen," which in common usage means "to figure, to represent, or to visualize graphically or vividly," and which achieves that meaning by incorporating the temporal and spatial language of "the present" and "presence" [die Gegenwart]. Writing, for Darboven, materializes her sense of immersion in the present at the same time as it registers the effects of historical events; using another possible translation of "vergegenwartigen," we might say that writing "actualizes" the coincidence of an experience of the present and a making present of the past. Fundamental to Darboven's art, I contend, is an attempt to render vivid, and meaningful, in aesthetic and political terms, the difference between making something appear or producing an appearance [Schein] and making something present. This paper, in other words, explores the possibility of seeing Darboven's writing as a medium of "disappearance" that aims nonetheless and indeed thereby to make things present. 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Marquard 48 Rhodes, Randall 13 Stapleton, Jaime 18 Richards, Sarah 69 Stara, Alexandra 19 Richardson, Catherine 25 Stracey, Frances 38 Rifkin, Adrian 18 Suiter, Maud 57 Rigby, Nigel 16 Syson, Luke 42 Roberts, Julie 5 7 Tennant Jackson, Jenny 5 2 Roberts, John 39 Tibbies, Anthony 16 Robson, Janet 1 2 Tillotson, Giles..., 50 Roe, Jeremy 29 Tolia Kelly. Divya 33 Rojnowska-Sadraei, Agnieszka ... 1 2 Tribe, Tania 49 Rollig, Stella 47 Trodd, Tamara 31 Rosenthal, Angela 56 Usherwood, Paul 33 Rouhani, Omid 55 Vaccaro, Mary 23 Rowe, Dorothy 27 Vickery, Jonathan 5 2 Association of Ari Hi>n •riiin­